Mid term Flashcards
Archaeology?
It is the scientific study of human past throught its material remains.
Gains knowledge through a scientific method of inquiry
Relies heavily on empirical evidence
Must consider ALL the evidence and construct hypotheses (theories)
Pseudoarchaeology?
Based on very selective evidence, or no evidence
empirical: something that can be seen, touched, measured etc.
Erich Von Daniken
King of Pseudoarchaeology
Pacal’s coffin stone-aliens
The goals of archaeology
1) To reconstruct lifeways of the people that created the archaeological record
2) To explain why people did things the way they did, particularly why cultures changed over time
Kinds of Archaeology
1) Prehistoric: study of the human past before written records
2) Historical: study of the past where written records are used together
3) Classical: specific kind of historical archaeology focusing on Greece and Rome.
4) Underwater/Marine: study of shipwrecks, but also marine activities of coastal dwelling peoples
CULTURE?
that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by [a person] as a member of society.
B.C. B.C.E. A.D. C.E B.P.
before Christ before common era Anno domini (after death of Christ) common era before present Millions of years ago
Types of archaeologists
- Academic: research (Universities, Museums, Govt., Parks Canada)
- Consultant: heritage conservation
E.g. BC Association of Professional Archaeologists
http://www.bcapa.ca/ - Avocational: based on interest (public)
e. g. Archaeological Society of B.C. www.asbc.bc.ca
Why do archaeology?
- Simple curiosity – natural in humans
- Contribution to knowledge
-A way of understanding who we are as a species?
How did we come to be who we are?
What can we learn from our past?
-Applied archaeology
Redressing the past (injustice)?
Archaeological Record
those traces and material remains that document past human activity
-can be broken down by geography and time
Archaeological Methods
ways in which we discover recover, preserve, describe and analyse the archaeological record
Archaeological Theory
body of ideas that guide archaeologists in their work, and ultimately provides the means to interpret the archaeological record
Antiquarian Period
Prior to 1800s pre-scientific pursuit collecting of artifacts as curiosities little attempt to understand societies explanations derived from biblical theology and scripture
The Rosetta Stone – found in 1799
Jean-Francois Champollion Deciphers hieroglyphs on Rosetta Stone in A.D. 1822
Giovanni Belzoni
The most infamous tomb robber (looter) of all time
Archbishop James Ussher – 17th century AD
chronologyProclaims that the world was created on the evening before October 23, 4,004 B.C.
John Frere -1797
Finds tropical animals and stone axes in English gravel beds
Jacques Boucher de Perthes -1836
Considered by some to be the “father” of
Paleolithic archaeology
Georges Cuvier
Late 18th century
Studied dinosaurs bones and geology
Realized that dinosaurs once “ruled” the earth
Explained extinction of dinosaurs through flooding, before humans were created
Theory of Catastrophism
James Hutton
18th century Scottish geologist
Proposed that the earth was formed slowly through natural processes such as accumulation, erosion etc.
Charles Lyell
The Principles of Geology 1830-33
Uniformitarianism
Created by Charles Lyell
a single set of processes can account for both past and present geological forms
Natural processes created the world as we see it (Implications: the earth is dynamic and continually changing)
Therefore: the earth must be much older than 6,000 years
Present is a key to the past
Charles Darwin
On the Origin of Species (1859)
Showed how organisms could change over time natural selection
Implication: humans could be much older than 6,000 years
“Modern” Archaeology Period
begins in 1800s with revolutions in geological and evolutionary thinking
realization of depth of time represented in archaeological and geological record
scientific principles come to govern the study of the past
concerns with the workings of past societies
Christian Thomsen
appointed curator in 1816
Organized artifacts by material and technology
Stone, Bronze, Iron
Chronological order
J.J.A. Worsaae took Thomsen’s ideas and applied them to archaeological sites throughout Europe
Organized sites in chronological order
Modified Thomsen scheme
Old stone age: Paleolithic Middle Stone age: Mesolithic New Stone age: Neolithic Bronze Age Iron Age
Analogy
Using ethnographic information to
try and explain archeological patterning
Ethnographic peoples as models for
Interpreting the past
Heinrich Schliemann
Born in early 19th century
Became interested in epic tales of Homer, especially the Trojan war
Wanted to know where ancient town of Troy was located
Schliemann knew that Troy would have been a big opulent town, with temples and grand architecture, treasure, etc.
1870: Schliemann begins excavations at Hissarlik
Employs 150 local people as excavators
1873: begins finding architectural remains and large hordes of metal objects, including gold
1875 Announces that he has found Troy
Sneaks all treasure out of country
-goes on display at Berlin Museum in 1881 and disappears
More recently scholars have questioned Schliemann’s actual role in “finding” Troy
cultural change
Archaeologists examine artifact changes over time
Augustus Pitt Rivers
Initial interest in evolutionary history of muskets (musket form change over time) Arranged his own collection in evolutionary sequence Argued: apply same analysis to any types of artifacts Conducted excavations with military Precision Every find was recorded (contra Schliemann)
Typology
putting things in order
by time and category
Creating schemes of classification based on attributes
Ordering in time and space
Oscar Montelius
Began developing archaeological
typologies in late 19th century
Used evolution of railway
carriage as example of typolo
Flinders Petrie
Created special typologies for Egyptian pottery – allowed for dating
Seriation- the pottery come in different shapes (in series, through time)
Stylistic seriation: similarities and differences in attributes (could be temporal or spatial)
Frequency Seriation: Frequency seriation: looking at relative frequencies of artifacts
Battleship curve
Mortimer Wheeler
Began using grid-square method of excavation
The Descriptive Period
1870-1950s (Alfred Kidder, leading American archaeologist)
-Construction of typologies and classifications were main concerns
Known commonly as the Culture History Approach
Putting archaeological “cultures” in time and space
Alfred Kidder
Worked in American southwest
Created ceramic typology and chronology for the entire southwest US
Lindbergh
Also argued strongly that archaeology and anthropology should be strongly aligned
Franz Boas
Influential anthropologist in early 20th century
Argued against universal social evolution
-societies should be examined in light of their own history
(people are products of their history)
Historical Particularism
Historical Particularism
-societies should be examined in light of their own history
people are products of their history
The Direct Historical Approach
Applied in areas where there was historical continuity e.g. the American southwest Logic: cultural continuity between people that created the archaeological record and current inhabitants
Work backwards
Culture change
Diffusion
Migration
Diffusion: The spread of ideas from one area to another
Example:
Many thought that the idea of civilization developed in Near East and spread elsewhere, including the Americas
Migration: physical movement of peoples
These two were thought to be the primary mechanisms for culture change
Gordon Childe
Developed the concept of archaeological cultures
-every society has rules for behaviour (norms), reflected in pottery design, spear point shape, etc
began asking why do cultures change?
-why did people develop agriculture?
Childe favoured environmental explanations
Julian Steward
influential 1950s anthropologist
who developed concept of Cultural Ecology
-cultures are determined by the ecology in which they participate
The cultural core of subsistence related traits mediates between environment and the rest of culture
Willard Libby-1949
Announces the invention of radiocarbon dating
Provides absolute date
(e.g. 2,105 BP)
Huge impact on archaeology and many other disciplines
Libby went on to win Nobel Prize
Lewis Binford
Influenced by Steward
- in turn became one of the most influential archaeologists in history
- Paradigm shift
Processual archaeology 1960s - present
Binford and others were dissatisfied with culture history
Wanted to go beyond and ask why cultures change
Wanted to explain culture process (Processual Archaeology)
Processual archaeologists
Wanted to distance themselves from old school archaeologists
Called their movement the “New Archeology”
Interested in universal “regularities”
Envisioned cultures as “systems”
subsistence, technology, ideology were all sub-systems
-part of peoples’ adaptation to their environment
subsistence, technology, ideology were all sub-systems
-also pushed for the use of scientific methods
-part of peoples’ adaptation to their environment
-Statistics and quantitative methods (and objectivity)
Hypothesis testing
-Binford and associates were quite aggressive in their critiques of “old school” archaeologists
-picked on certain archaeologists and forced them to reconsider their ideas (many were afraid)
-eventually changed the course of archaeology, particularly in the Americas
Post-Processual archaeology
Began in Europe in 1980s as a reaction to Processual archaeology
Leading proponent was Ian Hodder
(Cambridge at the time, now Stanford)
Challenged the Processual view that culture was primarily an adaptation to the environment
Interested in “social” aspects of human lifeways
Looking at “individuals” in history
Claimed that culture change can be caused by human agency
Argue for more gendered approaches
Today includes a number of different approaches, e.g: Marxist, Hermeneutic, Interpretive, Feminist, etc.
Key contributions:
-Self reflexivity
Can we be completely objective? (free of bias?)
-Multivocality (inclusion of many perspectives)
Today’s archaeology
Some archaeologists are trying to find a balance between Culture History, Processual and Post-Processual archaeologies
No one school appears to dominate
Not necessarily mutually exclusive approaches!
New techniques in archaeological science
Why is this important
Theory or conceptual leanings tend to guide archaeologists at every step
Determines what questions we ask and how we go about answering them
Archaeological Record
those material remains that
document past human activities
3 classes of archaeological data
1) Artifacts
1) Features
1) Ecofacts
2) Sites
3) Regions
Artifacts
portable objects whose form has been
wholly or partially modified by humans
FEATURES
non-portable human or human-made remains that
cannot be removed from their place of discovery
without altering or destroying their original form
ECOFACTS
non-artifact natural remains
that have cultural significance
SITES
Any place on the landscape where
there is evidence for human activity
Could contain artifacts or features and ecofacts, or any combination
e.g. habitation sites
Kill sites
Quarry sites
Regions
Region is a physically definable area (enclosed by mountains, lakes, etc)
Spatial distribution of sites over landscape
Advantages: larger scale, can look at trade and exchange, roads, shared beliefs
Matrix
Physical substance that surrounds the archaeological material
Can be gravel, sand, mud, shell, ice, water etc.
Matrix would be different in each case (deposition)
Provenience
Exact location of find within the matrix
Usually 3-d recording
FiRs-1: 2304
Catalogue number
The Law of Association
J.J.A. Worsaae
Items found together on the same horizontal plane are of similar age
STRATUM
STRATIGRAPHY
"Layer" Anything composed of layers or strata is “stratified” interpretation of the layering [“strata or stratification”] in archaeological sites
LAW OF SUPERPOSITION
In a set of strata, the order of DEPOSITION must have been from lowest to uppermost UPPER - deposited last LOWEST - deposited first (Stratigraphic section ot Profile)
RE-DEPOSITION
changes the order of the layers so that “older” layers now lie above “younger” layers [but law of superposition is NOT violated because law relates to deposition NOT necessarily age]
Archaeological Context
. PRIMARY - undisturbed since its original deposition
Association and provenience are intact
- SECONDARY – not in original position of deposition
(disturbed)
Association and provenience are questionable
FORMATION PROCESSES
Transformational Processes
- CULTURAL – (C-Transforms) human activities
that modify the environment (and leave material
Evidence) - NATURAL – (N-Transforms)
Cultural Formation Processes
human activities that modify the environment
4 idealized stages Acquisition Manufacture Use Deposition
Natural Formation Processes
Large number of processes
Dynamic (continuous)
Unique to each situation (not the same processes operate everywhere)
Fast flowing rivers (can move archaeological material even after burial)
Burrowing animals, insects, tree roots
Move archaeological materials
Earthquakes/tsunamis
Hurricanes
Ice freezing/thawing
Play a large role in preservation of organic archaeological materials
Examples?
Preservation dictated largely by environment:
Critical factors: Temperature and humidity
SCONDARY CONTEXT
means data associations result from
TRANSFORMATIONAL PROCESSES
Best conditions for organic preservation
Extremely dry Mummies Extremely wet shipwreck Extremely cold Baby mammoth 42000 BP, permafrost in Siberia
Difference between archaeology in Olden days or today?
Archaeology in the Olden Days
Pursuit of the wealthy
Focus was on conspicuous “sexy” sites
Archaeology in the Field Today
- Research Design
- Research Questions, Sampling
- Survey
- Surface Methods, Subsurface Testing, Mapping, Technology
THE CHAIN OF DATA REDUCTION
All human behaviour that ever happened in the past.
All the material remains produced by that behavior.
All the remains that survive transformational processes.
All the remains that are possible to locate.
Archaeological data that are located by an archaeologist.
Data that are collected in archaeological fieldwork.
Data that get analyzed.
Data that are published.
produces...
ARCHAEOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE
Development of cultural complexity
When did agriculture begin?
-look for archaeological evidence in tools: e.g. stone sickle blades for harvesting, domesticated plants/animals
When do people start settling down?
-look for evidence of transition from hunter-gatherer camps to long-term villages
When do we see evidence for social inequality?
-look for evidence in burials; some may be much more elaborate than others
Research Design
Step by step plan to address specific research question(s)
Includes assessment of previous knowledge, new data collection, analysis and publication
Research funding for academic archaeology
Canada
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC)
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC)
Indigenous communities
US
National Science Foundation (NSF)
Plus many other agencies (National Geographic, etc.)
A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN…
- establishes the question(s) you will investigate
and the kinds of data needed to answer it - guides what kind of data you will collect in the field,
which makes your project do-able and focused - makes your project fundable
Archaeological survey
Types of survey
1) General reconnaissance survey
2) Site survey
In either case, one must define the boundaries of the survey
General reconnaissance survey
Ground
Aerial?
Systematic attempt to locate, identify and record the distribution of archaeological sites
Includes geographic and environmental background
Physical setting: proximity to lake or river, quarry, valley system, etc.
Ground Survey: Geomorphology/landforms/hydrology/forest types/resources
Indigenous Traditional Knowledge
Previous archaeological work (e.g. RAAD – Remote Access to Archaeological Data in B.C.)
Historic documentation
Other local knowledge
Conspicuous sites
Aerial reconnaissance
Remote sensing from the air
Aerial Reconnaissance Photography直升机或无人机向下拍
Remote sensing on the ground(sub-surface testing)
Invasive
Coring
Augering
Shovel testing
Non-invasive
Magnetometry
Resistivity
Ground penetrating radar
Other ways of detecting(survey)
Sideways Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) Satellite Imaging (Landsat) Satellite Archaeology Google Earth and others Sarah Parcak Satellite Imaging -Survey Remote sensing under water Sidescan sonar Can detect large features on ocean/ lake floor Drone photography and mapping
Archaeological Survey
benefits
- data collection method used to gain
information about a site or region (many sites) - archaeologists inspect surface
and subsurface to locate archaeological data - produces information through methods
less intensive than excavation
Archaeological excavation
Major way to acquire data about the past
Generally the entire site is not excavated
Sites that are threatened may be entirely excavated
Site Datum
Reference point from which everything is measured
Usually permanent or semi-permanent marker on landscape
Grid is established from datum
Excavation Unit
11 m in size/ 22 m in size
Recording Provenience
Methods?
- the three dimensional location of artifacts and other
archaeological data within an archaeological site
Optical Transit/Stadia Rod
Total Station
Compass/Hip Chain
What is Archaeological Excavation
intensive data collection method used to gain
information about a site
focuses on the associations of artifacts and features
a site contains
main means of acquiring archaeological data
destructive process, collecting provenience information
is absolutely crucial!!!
Borden Site Designation Scheme
Used to identify archaeological sites throughout Canada
Four letters (two capital, two lower case) and a number
e.g. FiRs-28 Each small square = 10’ of latitude (12) Each small square = 10’ of longitude (24)
Archaeological dating
Relative
Compare two or more bits of archaeological data, and determine which one is older
No specific age given
Absolute
Assemblage
All materials collected from a single site or layer
Archarology Laboratory (other dating method?)
Artifact cleaning Artifact conservation Artifact labeling Artifact cataloguing Describe and record details, measurements, etc Usually on standardized database
Photographs and illustrations
Attributes: colour, shape, length, width, etc Classification E.g. 100 pots classified by colour: 50 red, 50 black by shape: 60 round, 40 oval by shape and colour: 30 red round, 20 red oval 30 black round, 20 black oval Fossil Index The Pleistocene – 1.8mya – 10,000 BP Glacial cycles Beringia LoessFine dust particles Loess-sand-gravel Pollen studies (Palynology) Faunal Dating Chemical dating(e.g fluorine and others) Organic material (e.g. bone) transform where organic material replaced by minerals (fossilization)
Fossils of different ages will have different mineral content
Abosolute dating
Calendars
Aztec
Coins
Glacial Varves counting 数石头有几层
Dendrochronology（tree ring dating）Invented by A.E. Douglass
Based on concept of annual tree ring growth
Tree rings indicate age and general environmental conditions
Requires:
-archaeological use of same tree type
-very good preservation of organics
Cores of modern samples compared with those of increasing age
Each region has distinctive growth pattern
Different tree types cannot be compared with each other
Master chart is then established for a particular region
Radiometric Methods Radiocarbon Potassium Argon Thermoluminescence Fission Track
Amino Acid Racemization
Archaeomagnetic Dating
Disadvantages and Adcantages of Dendrochronology
Disadvantages:
- requires proper tree types
- use of same species by people in the past
- needs very good preservation conditions
Advantages:
- precise and reliable dating method (to within a few years)
- In SW USA, chart goes back at least 2,000 BP
ABSOLUTE ‘RADIOMETRIC’ DATINGBasic Principles
Use decay rate of radioactive isotopes to measure time
Range of time measured based on isotope “half life”
Decay rate unaffected by environment
Exploit the principles of radioactive decay
Two most important methods:
Radiocarbon (14C) and Potassium/Argon (K/Ar)
Others:
Thermoluminescence, Fission Track, Uranium series
Radiocarbon (14C) dating
Invented by Libby (chemist) in 1949
Based on decay of carbon isotope
Half life
5,730 years
Materials: must be organic
Bone collagen, charcoal, shell, wood, leather, etc.
Date by association
Samples can be contaminated easily
Conventional dating: maximum age range of about 40,000 BP
Sample gets destroyed (burned)
Date is a statistical average
Newer technique: AMS (accelerator mass spectrometry)
Requires much smaller samples
Can date back to 50,000 BP
Lower limit is about 100 BP
3400 ± 200 BP
Date lies somewhere between 3,600 and 3,200 BP
Problem: amount of 14C has not been constant
Radiocarbon dates need to be calibrated (software widely available)
Bristlecone Pine chart
Dates become more difficult to calibrate beyond 9,000 BP
Marine reservoir effect (can also affect lakes and rivers)
Excess circulating carbon
Correction needed
Advantages and Disadvantages of Carbon Dating
Disadvantages
- maximum limit of 50,000 BP
- organic material
- samples contaminated easily
Advantages
- quick, efficient dating method
- many commercial labs
- somewhat cost effective
- calibration software widely available
Potassium Argon (Argon/Argon) Dating
Half life of 1.3 billion years
Volcanic layers can be dated
with this technique
Method first used in 1959 to date “Zinj” layer at Olduvai Gorge
Dated to 1.75 mya (million years ago)
Dating range: 100,000 to 3 billion years ago
Disadvantages
- need volcanic materials in stratigraphy
- fewer labs equipped to do this kind of work
Advantages
-in areas with strata of volcanic origin, this is a fairly reliable method
Other Types of Dating?
Thermoluminescence (TL) dating
Used mainly to date pottery (certain minerals)
Ceramics and glass trap electrons (natural radiation)
Different constant per area (background)
Sample heated to 400-500° C, trapped energy is released
- clock set to “zero”
- measuring energy released leads to time since firing (last “zero”)
Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL)
Quartz and feldspar in buried sediments
Can date sediment layers Disadvantages -accuracy not great (but improving) -should be used with other methods -background radiation needs to be accounted for
Advantages
-can date materials that K/Ar cannot date (pottery, soil, minerals such as quartz)
Fission Track Dating
- volcanic rocks
- minerals in rocks contain small amounts of 238Uranium
- decays over time
- some 238U atoms decay through spontaneous fission
- microscopic tracks can be counted
-standard rate of decay
Date range: 100,000 - > 2 billion years
Disadvantages:
- suitable raw materials not present everywhere, esp. volcanic glass
- large error bars
Advantages:
-can work as independent check on K/Ar dating
Amino Acid Racemization
Changes in amino acids after death
L-isomers change to D-isomers
Knowing rate of change can
tell us how long ago animal died
Aspartic acid: 5,000-100,000 BP
Method still in development
Archaeomagnetic Dating
Direction and intensity of earth’s magnetic field has changed over time
These are “recorded” in some clays containing magnetic minerals
Requires (non-portable) materials with clay, e.g. clay floors in houses
Sample collection is complicated requiring specialist and equipment
Date range at present is about 2,000 BP
Earth’s magnetic field reverses polarity in cycles
Also recorded in soil
Cannot be used as a dating method by itself
Good for cross dating with K/Ar dates
Absolute Dating Techniques METHOD Radiocarbon (14C) Radiopotassium (40K) Fission-Track Uranium Series AA Racemization Luminescence ESR
TIME RANGE (Approx) 100 – 50,000 BP 100,000 - billions BP 100 000 – 2 billion BP 30,000 – 300,000 BP up to 100,000 BP up to 1,000,000 BP up to 1,000,000 BP
ISSUES, LIMITATIONS, and PROBLEMS with ABSOLUTE DATING
SPECIFIC TO RADIOCARBON
Radiometric years may not equal calendar years - calibration required
Marine versus Terrestrial carbon affects result (Marine reservoir)
FOR ALL ABSOLUTE METHODS
Statistical measurements – variable precision
Low precision affects interpretation
Time coverage lacks for 40 000 to 350 000 years ago
How to Date specific?!
Method chosen depends largely on age range of site and datable materials
Cross-dating is always a good thing to do! (use more than one method)
Stone technology
Most common artifacts found in sites around the world
(stone tools)
Begins over 3 million years ago in Eastern Africa
People all over the world relied on stone technology
Hardest occurring raw material in nature
Raw material extremely important
Type of rock will dictate method of working
e. g. slate not generally good for flaking, but can be abraded/ground
e. g. certain types of basalt are good for flaking
Chipped stone technology
Raw materials are not evenly distributed on the landscape (depth of planning required)
People often went to “quarries” to collect stone that is good for flaking
- tools for toolmaking
- learning
- scheduling other resources
- social aspects
Hammerstone
Hard hammer: generally a rock (must be harder than material worked)
Soft hammer: antler, bone, hard wood, softer stone
Flake / Core distinction
Flake: piece of rock material that has been detached from a parent piece
Core: parent material from which flakes have been detached
Features of a TYPICAL FLAKE
Ventral Surface
Dorsal Surface
On ventral surface
- Point of impact
- Striking platform
- Cone of percussion
- Bulb of percussion
- Ripple marks
On dorsal surface
- Flake scars
- Cortex
RETOUCH-further edge flaking to shape tool form
or re-sharpen edge after use
Oldowan Technology
Old stone technology that began around 2.5 million years ago
Cores and Flakes
ACHEULEAN BIFACIAL TECHNOLOGY
Hand-axe
Cleaver
Various Hand-axe forms
LEVALLOIS
FLAKING
TECHNIQUE
preparing a core for removal of a finished tool, in this case, a Levallois point Starts 200,000 BP
BLADE TECHNOLOGY
- blades are flakes that are very long and thin (2:1 ratio)
- blade production maximizes amount of cutting edge from a piece of stone Begins 100,000 BP Solutrean Points About 17,000 BP Atl Atl (spearthrower) Variations:
-throwing board
-Australia: woomera
Used until fairly recently
Bow and arrow(about 12,000 BP)
Wood/plant based technology
Likely very early in human history (preservation?)
Very rare preservation, but can tell much about technology, use and paleoenvironment
Bone tool technology
First appear in Upper Paleolithic in Europe (preservation?)
Usually land mammal bones (in B.C. deer, elk, moose etc)
Bird bone used as well
Fish bone not good for tool use
cutting and grinding
Fire
Making fire is a complex procedure
Requires proper raw materials
Complex learning process
Containers
Gourds
Ostrich egg shells
Hide/leather containers
Internal organs of various animals
Basketry
Pottery
Japan: around 12,000 BP
Near East: by 9,000 BP
Near East pottery appears roughly at same time as permanent villages
Pottery tends to be associated with sedentary societies
Mobile hunter gatherers rarely made/carried around pottery
Fairly complex technology
Requires suitable clay and proper mixture of water
Temper must be added, (prevents breaking during firing)
Some common tempers: sand, crushed shell + ?
Early pottery made by coil method use hand to shape
Paddle and anvil method use stone to shape
Around 5,000 BP potter’s wheel first used in Near east
Firing technology to burn it- kilns
Importance
Extremely important in archaeology before radiocarbon dating invented
Possible to source the clay, if pottery traded over some distance
Residues can tell us what the pot was used for (food, honey, wine, etc)
Metal
Preservation is largely dependent on soil conditions
Earliest metal used was copper, in Near east by 9,000 BP
Native copper
Not widely distributed
Cold hammered/rolled into shape
Traded extensively
In this form, copper is not very strong
Metallurgy first shows up around 6,000 BP
Good evidence in eastern Europe by 5,500 BP
Bronze
After 5,500 BP alloying developed in Near East
Copper alloyed with tin, arsenic or lead results in bronze
Bronze is much stronger and more durable than copper
Iron
May have developed in Africa between 4-3,000 BP
Quarries
Very complex technology
Requires much learning
Apprentice system in Africa
Heavy social component
Smelting process requires high temperatures
Experience
Iron implements are much stronger than bronze
Carburization (iron is converted to steel) in eastern Mediterranean after 3200 BP
Rest of Europe: Iron starts spreading at 2700 BP
Gold-Egypt, central& south America
How do we know how the technology was made or what it was used for?
Ethnographic analogy
Experimental archaeology
Experimental Archaeology
Replication and use of ancient technologies
Range from stone tools to entire villages
Boat construction
Hide scraping
Ethnoarchaeology
Technology?
function
Greater complexity and efficiency over time
More specialized knowledge (stone to iron)
Technology: allowed for cultural adaptation to varied environments
