MID TERM Flashcards
What does the definition of politics mainly focus on (3)
- Collective Decision-making
- Enforcement/implementation of decisions
- Distribution of valuable goods
According to Foucault what is an ultimate basis of power within a number of modern institutions ?
science
Depict Marx’s dialectic. What are its 3 parts?
Dialectic: Belief that any force creates an opposing and opposite force, both interact, and this interaction creates a new force, which in turn creates a new opposing force.
Theory of Historical Change borrowed from Hegel
- *3 parts :** antithesis, synthesis (in between, becomes a new form),thesis
- Suggesting that chance is driven by conflicts, dialectical style of conflict
What is hall’s definitions of civil society ?
“a form of societal self-organization that allows for cooperation with the state while permitting individuation”
How is Tocqueville different from Durkheim
Looks at conflict and power
-civil society as a basis of power that keeps politicians accountable. Durkheim thought they brought norms and collectivity but for Tocqueville it was a source of power.
who is John A. Hall
•James McGill Chair of Comparative Historical Sociology at McGill
•Political sociologist and prolific scholar
–20-some books
–Specializes in social theory and social change
–Writes on nationalism, states, development, and civil society
What is similar between power and interrelational perspectives
–Both analyze power relations and recognize that all types of social relations are interdependent
What are ideal types according to Weber?
Ideal types: abstract typologies that are not meant to conform to reality and that are used to compare units to highlight reasons for similarities and differences
What are the similarities between the Tocquevillian and the Lockian views ?
•Similarities:
–both views generally believe associations and norms are strongly related
•Norms of civility promote associationalism, and associationalism promotes civility
–Both view civil society as beneficial
Depict the first form of democracy
•Hunter-Foragers: Evidence that highly democratic, in that all can participate in decision making
-Democracy is not “new”
What is the critique of Biological View
there are and have been societies with considerable female empowerment
–Biology can’t explain variation in female empowerment
•Physical strength has no longer main basis of power (power no more coercive)
•Men aren’t necessarily more aggressive by nature, but there is a double standard: aggressive women are perceived much more negatively than aggressive men
What are the 3 core elements of politics
–Government: Trudeau (its cabinet and all)
–Regime: Parliamentary Democracy (who makes the decision, how are they made, rules of the game)
–State: Various political organization (used by the government to enforce its policies)
What is the sociological imagination
Definition: The ability to connect seemingly impersonal and remote historical forces to the incidents of an individual’s life
-very influencial book (1995)
–Against all-powerful individualism, notes how the social world shapes you
–Sociological imagination allows us to see how social problems affect us, not simply our faults
–Useful tool : allows us to better understand ourselves and others
-Looking at the effects of the environment and how it shapes individuals
What is plurialism in Lukes view
Pluralism: Suggests power is evenly distributed among many groups and that democracy must
respond to diverse interest groups (all groups are able to participate)
Depict Durkheim view on civil society
–Focuses on consensus instead of conflict
–Considers how interactions contribute to norms of civility, looking out for the well-being of the group
–Views as it vital for democracy ( looking at out at how civil society influences democracy)
-people coming together is important for the survival of society and allows to create collective consciousness
How does Foucault view power, what is he interseted in ?
Power “can be identified better by what it does than what it is”. Power forces us to act in certain ways. Power isn’t necessarily controlled by anyone, it has a life of its own, although people started it. Power becomes institutionalized, it becomes social
More interested in the effect of power, the patterns shaped by power, looking at theses power and explaining them.
what does foucault questions ?
Whose interests do “true statements” serve? How are they embedded within and creating power relations?
In Hall’s view, what is the relationship between democracy and civil society ?
Civil society allows democracy to work but at the same time, without democracy, there is no freedom within society for people to self organize. Dependent on politics not only influences it.
What did Putman’s Making Democracy look at ?
•Regional Democratization in Italy: Analyzes causes of different success of regional democratic/decentralizing reforms in Italy in the 1970s
–Very mixed success, looking at what helps to explain this ?
According to Durkheim how does the mind goes from the individual to the collective level ?
Rituals and symbols
What is the structure agency debate
Mills thought both are important, neither is dominant
–Structure—guides us, shapes our options
–Agency—our actions make up society, shape history, our actions shape history
*There are inequalities in agency
Depict cultural explanations in terms of gender and politics
•Region: Certain regions have more female representatives, others less. Some regions are more acceptant than others.
•Religion: Catholic, Orthodox, and Muslim regions have fewer female representatives
•Norms: Places with peoples who accept patriarchal values have lower female participation
-cultural base that can inform the presence of female
*these affect both demand and supply
Who is Alexis De Tocqueville
- Early political sociologist
- Not given as much attention in Sociology, more in poli-sci
- Born into aristocracy but after French Revolution
- Most influential works on causes of revolution (which he was quite skeptical about) and how civil society promotes democracy
- Tocqueville is most famous for his work on democracy in the United States
- He visited the United States in the 1830s when it was the only formal democracy in the world (although women and racial minorities couldn’t vote)
Who is Robert Putnam
Famous American : famous American political scientist working on democracy
What are supply side arguments in terms of gender and politics ?
Supply-Side: Suggests women are less willing to run for election
•Too many family obligations
•Aversion to aggressive work that takes them away from their families
•Socialized to pursue other “female” occupations
•Spouses, family, and friends discourage
-these supply side factors limit female candidates
What are the negetive effect of bureaucracy on democracy ?
- Negative Effect of Bureaucracy
- Based on radical opposing principles (hierarchy and authority vs equality)
- Dehumanize people, limit participation
- Iron cage: people just follow rules, lack self motivation and moral autonomy (which is necessary for democracy)
- Allows organization elites to control politics
What is the disagreement in terms of patriarchy ?
Disagreement about whether patriarchy is universal
–Some believe it has always been the norm, although variation in the extent of patriarchalism
–Others believe there was much greater variation before and that patriarchy only became the norm more recently
–Some combine these two views
What was the effect of modernity on power and inquality accorind to Mills
Thought modernity gave great power to some but disempowered most, some more than others
–These people with all the power make history and exert considerable control over the lives of others
-With modernity, growing levels of agency Inequality
How did Weber define power?What are example of sources of power ? What are the 3 main bases of power in his view ?
Power : the ability, within a social relationship, of realizing one’s will even against resistance
Sources: Economic, military/muscular, control of organizations, contacts, etc.
Bases : economy, politics, and culture
What is Foucault’s theory on bureaucracy ?
Foucault : bureaucracy is a powerful discipline that disempowers people, removes their power and limits their participation (removes power from the people, refrains them to participate)
Biological differences engender patriarchy only __________
when certain social factors are present
What are the three main arguments that explain the proliferation of patriarchy ?
–Intensive Agriculture: Some claim use of plow made men economically dominant
•Greater physical strength made them main producers
–War argument: Once warfare becomes common, men gain power because of strength and female pregnancy and breastfeeding
–Colonialism argument: Colonialism spread Patriarchy
•Suggests colonial powers imposed patriarchal norms and institutions
What is H,R,S research question ?
What explains the relationship between capitalism and democracy? Robust middle class cant be the answer ?
Name and describe the historical stages of economic development
•Hunter-Gatherer Society (mode of production= “garden of eden”, very equitable according to Marx, no private property, relations of production were collective ownership so no conflict (at least none that would lead to dialectical change) but then there was a change)
•Slave Society (extreme transformation, from equality to complete inequality, some individuals literally owned others, very exploitative)
•Feudal Society (also very exploitative and unequal, based on serfs having to work for the nobles, inequitable mode of production according to marx, caused a lot of conflict which resulted in a new mode of production)
•Capitalist Society (present mode of production, less exploitative than slave and feudal, it is extremely efficient, there is owners which hire individuals, the capitalist get most of the profit and are able to benefit from it which is highly unequal, Marx believed it was gonna cause conflict to lead to an other mode of production)
–Marx marvelled at its efficiency
–Believed it was exploitative, alienated workers
•Communist Society (going full circle, equitable society, everybody owns the mode of production, getting the true value of your labor, to Marx this was a much better society, but he did not talk about exactly how it was going to work)
What happends to the bourgeoisie during capitalist development ? What are they for democracy ?
Capitalists/Bourgeoisie: Gain considerable power, but pursue partial democratization
–They want power but are fearful of allowing the workers to participate in politics
-They promote democracy for themselves, they don’t want to to expand suffrage beyond themselves, they don’t want the lower classes involved in politics
-so they were a mixed bag for democracy
What are, accorind to hall, the 3 main reasons civil society developed in Western Europe ?
•(1) Religion: Religions can’t be too powerful or they organize society
–Don’t allow for its self-organization
–Limit individuation
Religion enforces its doctrine and model, promoting conformity and eliminates the ability of indication and self- organization
•(2) State: Civil society requires states, but the states cannot be too powerful (they want to keep the power for themselves, monopolize power )
–States needed to provide a rule of law, protect rights and liberties
–States that are too powerful and authoritarian don’t allow for the self-organization of society
-Under what kind of conditions would the state be able to allows self-organization ?
•(3) Economy: Capitalism promoted civil society
–Weakened traditional forms of control, privilege
–Provided resources*
–Helped limit power of state and religion (counterweight)
Define the patriarchy
Social relations in which men hold power and women are largely excluded from it
who is Stevenson
First Nations woman and scholar considers colonialism and patriarchy in Canada
What is the Qualitative litterature on democracy based on ?
•Qualitative work provides detailed case studies of countries, analyzing factors that promote and impede democracy in particular cases
What are the two views of civil society ?
Lockian and Tocquevillian
What are the postive effect of bureaucracy on democracy ?
- Positive Effect of Bureaucracy
- Great social leveler: based on merit, not birth, opposed to tradition/aristocratic power
- Organizing Democracy: Organizations needed to make mass democracies function properly Organization of election needs bureaucracy because it is so complex (locations to vote, disseminating ballots, supervising elections, electoral list, protection ballots, counting the votes.. )
What are the findings of the qualitative literature in terms of democracy
–Find that the bourgeoisie and the middle class are frequently against democracy •Look out for their own interests, opposed to the participation of lower classes •Hardly in favour of “civil” society- lack of “civic norms” –Conclude capitalism doesn’t promote democracy -Empowering the middle class endures/prevent democracy
What is a bureaucracy according to Weber
Organization in which rules are the basis of individual action, rules are rationally organized to unify actions
Organizational technology able to harness the effort of thousands of people - allowing groups to accomplish things no one could achieve on their own
What is class based argument in the quantitative litterature on democracy ? what are the two things it focuses on ?
Class-based argument: Propose that capitalism strengthens the middle class (as they are the ones who gain more power and benefit from capitalistic development)
**Civil Society:** Argument generally focuses on middle class and civil society –Middle class upholds liberal norms of freedom and equality –Middle class is civically active, pursues political inclusion
Contrast weber and marx empirical Work
•Empirical Work
–Marx wrote mainly about theory
–Weber wrote mainly empirical analyses (middle range theory, not trying to explain everything)
How does Stevenson portray the role and impact of missionaries ? In addition, what did the state provide ?
•Sees missionaries as having played important role *by creating/justifying oppression
- they provided the moral and ideologies
- The state provided legal authority
Poggi notes that people with different bases of powerfight about which one ____ the others
‘trumps’
–Capitalists emphasize wealth, cultural elites emphasize status, rulers emphasize command and
coercion
How did Durkeim look at Structural Functionalism
Structural-Functionalism: Analyzed societies as a whole, looked at the functions social relations fulfill in order for the society to survive
Provide a working definition of democracy (3 characteristic)
•Huber, Rueschemeyer, and Stephens suggest democracies share three main characteristics:
•(1) regular free and fair elections on the basis of universal suffrage
–Regular (once every 4 years for example to hold leader accountable, allow change..), free (no constraints on them preventing people to vote for their favourite candidate..) , fair (no bias), universal suffrage (not only a small segment able to vote, everybody should be able to vote)
•(2) responsibility of the state apparatus to the elected representatives (elected officials need to be in power, example: not the military in power)
•(3) guarantees of freedom of expression and association
•Why are such freedoms important? If people are forbidden candidates and public to express their views, gather together and debate .. the election wont represent the democratic will of the population
*difficult to pin point when a state becomes “democratic enough”*
Who is Michel Foucault
- French Sociologist, 1926-1984
- Extremely influential Postmodern theorist
- His work focuses on the rise of more hidden forms of “modern” power
- Focuses largely on science and disciplines as constantly exerting power- increasingly influential while people don’t realize
Why is political equality impossible according to Dahl ?
Impossibility because some people have more political power than others
Depict Demand-Side Theories in terms of gender and politics
•Suggest a low demand for female politicians is what explains their under-representation
–Popular biases against females, viewed as poor leaders
–Old Boys Network: Part of candidate selection process
–Evidence: Female candidates are less likely to win
-So a bias amongst the public but also within the networks
What did Michels observe within the German Social democatic Party
- Michels a very active and idealistic member
- Michels experiences made him very disillusioned
- Members were not able to infuse party platform
- Believed the party leaders were selling out the establishment
- If they themselves are not democratic ? How can they promote democracy ? He blamed the bureaucracy
What are Social Facts in Durkheim’s view
“ways of acting, thinking, and feeling, external to the individual and endowed with a power of coercion, by reason of which they control him”
-social characteristics and not individual characteristics
What are the similarites and differences between H,R,S and Marx ?
Similarities and Differences with Marx:
–Both focus on class conflict and power
–Marx thought both cohesion and org. vital to empowering workers
–H, R, & S show that this promoted democracy, not revolution
What is the key in H,R,S argument ?
the working class is key
What is the nation-state
•Nation-State: Emerged as dominant political model over the past few centuries and defines who is part of the “nation,” who the state is supposed to serve
What is the third face of power according to lukes
The Third Face of Power
•Most controversial of the three
•Power exerted by controlling the beliefs and perspectives of individuals (Mind control- somebody is able to exert control onto what one thinks)
–Very hidden, not necessarily controlled by anyone
•Occurs when there is a mismatch between objective interests (need for food) and subjective interests (what you think you need- sometime what people think they need is not good for them)
–False Consciousness: subjective interests oppose objective interests (people thinking that capitalism is good for them)
–Lack of Consciousness: don’t recognize interests (lack of racial consciousness)
what did michels see organizations as ?
–Saw organization as the means of immense power, concentrates power in the hands of a few
How does community relate to politics ?
Politics is about collective decision-making and the implementation of policy for the collective
–Who is part of the collective? Who is not?
What is Elite Theory?
Elite Theory: Theory of the state suggesting that a
small elite controls the reigns of power
–Elite theory pays considerable attention to how economic elites are able to influence the state
What was Marx’s view of the state. On which aspect of the state was there uncertainty
States are organizations of power - so he was looking at the state as very influenced by the economy (looking at the way the economy shaped the state)
•Uncertain whether Marx thought state was instrumental or relatively autonomous
–Instrumental: simply the instrument of the capitalists (the elite is pulling the strings of the state, extremely materialistic view)
–Relatively Autonomous: Able to act contrary to capitalists at time but must support capitalists in the long-run ( in the short-run, the capitalist don’t control the state like a puppet, without resources the state is powerless but the elite need to follow the interests in order for the state to work)
Explain the sources of power according to Marx (3).
–Resources (economic resources allow power and these resources can also create power, if people want the resources , they will do whatever you want for them)
–Coercion ( money resources needed for coercion, example the army)
–Control of Ideas: false consciousness (when people are unaware or incorrect about the nature of their interests, the workers are not interested in the revolution because they perhaps had this false consciousness, capitalism socializes people and workers think that capitalism its the best system - need for intellectual elites to break down the false consciousness
* Marxist theory suggests economic resources make possible both coercion and control of ideas. So when you have the modes of production, you have all that power
What are the 10 benefits of democracy according to Dahl?
- (1) Avoiding Tyranny (rules from democracy help to prevent)
- (2) Protecting essential rights
- (3) General Freedom
- (4) Self-determination (being able to influence the rules you think are best)
- (5) Moral autonomy (need to act based upon your own morals but the general freedoms free you from constraints and lead you to act according to your own morals)
- (6) Human development (health care, education ..)
- (7) Protecting personal interests (through these rights and the rules of the game people are able to look out for themselves better)
- (8) Political equality
- (9) Peace
- (10) Prosperity
Durkheim offers considerable insight into why politics always _________
involves delineating the collective
What did Michels conclude because of ILO
Because of this, Michels concluded that it is the leader of the organization that is most important
•Saw Mussolini as an effective, charismatic leader
what are rituals according to Durkeim ?
- *Rituals:** heighten shared awareness of social unity (where people gather together and focus attention on unified community symbol)
- Everyday life is also full of small scale/micro rituals that hold society together
Depict the Tocquevillian view
•Alexis de Tocqueville: believed communities were necessary to be counterweight to the state
•Societies need to be self-organizing to withstand state power, tame the state and get it to serve their interest
-Need for civil society in order to counter the power of the state, need for people to self organize and help to contain the state and get it to serve its interest
-Actors controlling the state, preventing it from being too powerful
What makes disciplines so powerful ?
-they are backed by “knowledge”
Depict The Rise of Civil Society in Western Europe in terms of the state
•State: Feudalism created openings for societal organization in cities (claiming lands outside state control, pockets in which actors not under the control of the elites or the state) , especially in Northern Europe (since the state usually wants to monopolize power, something has to happen for the state to let self-organization)
–Rule by law strengthened in these areas (emerge of legal systems that protect the right and freedoms of individuals)
–Promoted greater social autonomy
*free cities saw themselves grow the first vibrant civil societies
What is elite theory ?
-Elite Theory: Basis of elite power and domination (bureaucracy is the base of concentration of power which hurts democratization)
Who is emile Durkeim
- French, 1858-1917
- Founder of sociology as an academic discipline (and anthropology)
- Differed from both Marx and Weber by focusing on consensus, not conflict
Canada has an history of _______ - its therefore ________
exclusion
though to say when it became fully democratic
how many countries in the world today that have a complete democracy?
75
Depict Marx’s materialism
•Materialism: Economic production is the material basis of society.
Economy as the base and all other aspects are the superstructures. All structures dependant and shaped by the economy. So if you want to understand any social relation (example family) , you need to look at the economy
Give an example of a situation analyzed through the sociological imagination
Example: Missing Aboriginal Women
•Individual Problem: Sees missing women as defective in some way, made bad choices with consequences
–Drug addict, prostitute
•Sociological Imagination forces you to consider if this is a social problem
•History: Disempowering of Aboriginal women
(Stevenson), cultural genocide and marginalization
•Social Structure: Poverty and discrimination, live in areas of with high crime
•Biography: Poor, low self-esteem, drugs
•History Social—> Structure —>Biography
-Seeing this seemingly individual problem in the sociological imagination light, it appears as a social problem
What are the causes of revolution according to Marx (2 + subsections)
Material hardship (Motive for workers to revolutionize) :
–Immiserization of workers
–Centralization of capital (eventually less and less people owning resources)
–Falling profits (capitalist is based of competition which will lead profits to decline, less money to go around to buy off the proletariat)
–Economic crises
People were poor, angry and frighten and needed to do something about it
Class consciousness (Not revolting because of individual interest)
-Workers joining together to overthrow
–Urbanization, communication, political organization
According to Huber, Rueschemeyer, and Stephens what are the major bases of power ? How do they relate to capitalist development ?
(1) the state/state-society
(2) the international system (power relations influenced by international power relations)
(3) classes (capitalist development is shaping classes in a systemic way that influences power relations promote democratization)
capitalist development is shaping these bases in a systemic way which influences power relations promote democratization ?
Depict Huber, Rueschemeyer, and Stephens approach of quantitive and qualitative views
Accept aspects of both research traditions
–Quantitative: Believe the relationship between capitalism and democracy is too strong to ignore (so capitalism must promote democracy in SOME way)
–Qualitative: Believe that the qualitative research provides convincing evidence that the bourgeoisie and the middle class were not the driving force behind democracy
Which country is the earliest democracy (arguably) ?
England
–Bill of Rights in 1689 (although many restrictions)- beginning to promote an institutional parliament democracy (shift of power from monarchy to parliament)
–Influenced American colonies
What is the second face of power according to Lukes
The Second Face of Power
•Institutional rules that affect whose interests are pursued
–Recognizes that institutions are powerful and biased
•Who is able to participate in decision-making
•Who sets the agenda
-individuals who are able to put their interests on the agenda and able to exclude others from putting their interest on the agenda are powerful (which explain who gets their interests pursued)
•Differs from the 1st face of power in that rules are basis of power instead of resources
-people usually this face of power (even the ones who are advantaged)
–Conflict isn’t necessarily in the open, hidden
–Allows people with power to maintain it
What are the effects of colonialism on gender dynamics according to Stevenson ?
Colonialism: Disempowered indigenous women in a variety of ways
–Ended polygamy and strengthened marriage, which removed the economic autonomy. Women tied to marriage much more tightly, removing their liberties
–Indian Act: Gave greater legal rights to men
–Ended matrilineal and institutions empowering women
-Colonialism and the implemented institutions that allowed patriarchy- which could explain how patriarchy was spread around the world
What is social density according to Durkheim
- *•Social Density:** physical pattern of who is in the presence of whom, for how, long, and with how much space between them (the network of people interact with mapped)
- Need for high social density for societies to survive
How does ITU associations influenced leadership ?
- Associations provide arena where union members can gain leadership skills* How ?
- Promotes effective opposition and 2-party system (opportunities to move up and become an official as members develop their skills)
Review Michels basic claims, how does Union Democracy respond to them ?
- Lack of time and interest of the subordinate actors: Associations promote participation amongst the base level members
- Bureaucracy provides rules and regulations that enforce hierarchy: Associations reduce hierarchy, horizontal based organizational system of power which limits the power of the elite
- Bureaucratic elite control the formal means of communication within the organization: Associations and two-party system open communication, different means of communication able to counteract this ILO mechanism
- Knowledge of rules: Associations and two-party system break down exclusive elite knowledge of rules
- Leadership skills of elites: Associations and two-party system break down elite monopoly. Association allow people to get better leadership skills and compete with the other officials
How do organizations empower the working class ?
Labor unions and party organizations empower the working class, allow them to push for political incorporation
•Yes, these organizations are oligarchic, but . . .
–they still look out for the interests of members (unions still looking out for the interest of the workers- which will still promote democratization)
–Choice between different unions and parties helps keep organizational elite responsive
- the Pluralist perspective is important
What are the 3 components of the power elite and what are their outcome ?
–Status Community—go to same schools, have same friendship networks, have same elite outlooks
–Interdependence—all three segments of the elite are interdependent
–Transferability—elites from one segment can become elites of another segment
•Outcome: Cohesive elite community, able to look out for elite interests
–Promotes a social and political oligarchy
Depict variation in sources of power
places vary according to which source of power is dominant
–Economic has become increasingly important
–Culture more important in theocracies
–Coercion vital in places experiencing war
What are the two views in political sociology
Interrelational and Power View - not necessarily competing
What did Modernity create according to Mills ?
- institutions that affected our lives more and more
- individualism
Why does sociology have difficulty to provide insight into how the social world works
•(1) Limited use of controlled experiments (which would usually the best way to gain insight, chemistry for example) - but it can be used with treatment groups for example because you are able to compare and find differences due to the treatment that you’ve given. It can be done but it is very difficult to look at larger patterns of social relations. There is also a lot of ethical issues which are encountered in controlled experiments.
•(2) No Social Laws, great complexity (social relations are very complicated and cant be explained by one universal law like gravity) –Multi-causality very common in social sciences. For example, democracy has a lot of different causes which makes it very complicated to come up with a single explanation. –People act differently in the same situation. Unlike atoms, humans have different behaviour in different conditions –Diverse Motives: Wink example (can be a great variety of motives leading to someone winking [flirting, dirt in eye, something in the room, example…]
Who is C. Wright Mills
C. Wright Mills
•American, 1916-1962
•Arguably US’s most influential sociologist
•Influenced by both Weber and Marx (–Marx: Influenced by Marx in this way, and in that he focused on inequality and elite domination –Weber: Influenced by Weber in that he focused greatly on politics and power and didn’t accept materialism)
•Wright Mills was an activist sociologist who wanted to use knowledge to make the world a better place. Come up with understanding to change the world and make it a better place.
Who was Marx? What did he believe? What could he considered as (2)?
Born and raised in Germany and a trained philosopher, spent much of his life in exile in London, the global hub of capitalism. Collaborated with and supported financially by Friedrich Engels, a capitalist.
Believed ideas were useless unless put into action
Believed that we could analyze social relations empirically to gain an understanding of how they work. He was an extreme sociologist, believe we could use the scientific to make sociology something like physics, creating laws we could manipulate
- Positivist: Believed we could discover social laws that govern all social relations
- Critical: Marx believed he had stumbled upon the main laws governing human relations
Depict the 4 part explanation in Union Democracy
4-part explanation
Union Democracy = rare phenomenon
Two party system= very important cause
Occupational associations= which caused and promoted the two part system + promoted democracy within the ITU
Occupational associations= causing the OA
