Mid-Term Flashcards
What is the Fertile Crescent?
Fertile crescent in the Middle East (cradle of civilization - earliest human civilizations arose; 10,000 to 4,000 BCE.)
this region gave rise to some of the world’s earliest civilizations. (
close to water
This region, which includes parts of present-day Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, and Egypt, is often referred to as the “Cradle of Civilization” due to the development of agriculture, urbanization, and some of the first known cities.
The availability of water and fertile land led to the development of some of the earliest human civilizations in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), Egypt, and the Levant.
The region’s abundance allowed for social, political, and technological advances, including the development of writing systems, complex social hierarchies, and monumental architecture like pyramids. The Fertile Crescent also saw advancements in mathematics, astronomy, and engineering. Due to its central location, the Fertile Crescent became a hub of trade routes connecting Asia, Africa, and Europe. These trade routes laid the groundwork for the spread of languages, religions, and innovations throughout the ancient world.
Byzantine Empire
Rival states in Greek and Persian worlds, Byzantines (believed to be Romans; one and true heir) and Sassanian were rivals. Conflict could be all-consuming that weakened the states
330 AD
The Byzantines were officially Christian. The Byzantine emperor was also seen as God’s representative on EarthThe Byzantines were fiercely devoted to their religious identity, which was a point of rivalry with the Zoroastrian Sassanians.
The Byzantine Empire was also an autocratic monarchy, but its governance was more bureaucratic and centralized than the Sassanian system. The Byzantine administration relied on a well-organized civil service with tax collectors, governors, and administrators.
Byzantine culture was a blend of Greek and Roman influences. Byzantine art is known for its religious iconography, mosaics, and domed architecture, as exemplified by the Hagia Sophia. The Byzantine Empire preserved and transmitted much of Greek and Roman knowledge, which later influenced the Islamic Golden Age and the Renaissance.
The Byzantine economy was one of the most advanced in Europe and the Mediterranean, with Constantinople as a major hub of trade.
Religious tolerance varied depending on the emperor, with Orthodox Christianity often enforced as a unifying ideology. Despite this, certain groups, such as Jews, were allowed to live in the empire under specific conditions
Emperor Justinian
(r. 527-565 CE)
- A high point in the empire
ambitious, militaristic, successful - Known for rebuilding the earlier church in Constantinople (Aya Sophia or Hagia Sophia)
- Religious identity was the most important way to identify oneself
Emperor Justinian I (reigned 527–565 CE) was one of the most notable rulers of the Byzantine Empire, remembered for his ambitious projects to restore Roman glory, codify Roman law, and strengthen Christianity throughout the empire. His reign marks a high point in Byzantine history, as he sought to revive aspects of the Roman Empire and establish a legacy that would endure for centuries.
Sassanian Empire
founded 224 CE
centred in early Iran and Iraq
imperial Islamic culture developed on Sassanian models
Like the Sassanian empire, tolerant of religious diversity and open to foreign knowledge and experts (Bayt Al-Hikma)
Sassanian Empire: The official religion was Zoroastrianism, which deeply influenced Sassanian society and government. Although other religions, including Christianity, Judaism, and Buddhism, were practiced in Sassanian territories, these groups faced periods of persecution, particularly during times of conflict with the Byzantines. The Sassanians were an absolute monarchy, with a rigid hierarchy based on a feudal system. Sassanian culture was heavily influenced by Persian and Mesopotamian traditions. Art, literature, and architecture from the Sassanian period emphasized divine kingship, often reflecting Zoroastrian cosmology and symbolism. Sassanian art is characterized by intricate reliefs, majestic palaces, and fire temples. Sassanian culture also heavily influenced later Islamic art and culture, particularly in Persia.
Khusrau II
r. 560-628 CE
State religion Zoroastrianism
Centralized government which worked to keep its unruly and powerful aristocracy under control. Characterized by a high mobile cavalry army.
Marked a high point in Sasanian fortunes
Persian literature development
His army Captured Alexandria
He was super effective
Know less about Sasanian culture because it was taken over by Arabs 650
Ahura Mazda
Ahura Mazda is the god of Zoroastrianism
one transcendent of god, created universe, works for good and justice, demon arimon (establishes evil and chaos in the world), in the conflict human beings have free will to make their own choices, in the end the good will prevail and will hold their choices responsible.
state religion of the Sassanian state
Sassanian kings promoted the idea that they ruled by the will of Ahura Mazda, seeing themselves as his representatives on Earth. This concept of divine kingship was central to Sassanian authority. Inscriptions and royal iconography frequently depict Sassanian kings receiving the “divine investiture” from Ahura Mazda, symbolizing their divine right to rule.
Lakhmid
Kufa was located on the outskirts of al hira, which was the lakmid capital.(founded 637) 5 years after Muhammads death (cities expanded so much outside Arabian peninsula)
Founded during Omar’s rule
Located in the outskirts of Lakmid, the al hira capital
The Lakhmids contributed significantly to the flourishing of Arabic poetry, language, and culture in the pre-Islamic period.
Ghassanid
Byzantine clients
Arab, and christian. Ruled by tribesmen who had immigrated from Yemen to southern syria. Had a love of poetry, the king was elected by the tribal confederation heads.
The Ghassanids were a significant Arab kingdom that played a vital role in the political, military, and cultural landscape of the Levant during Late Antiquity. Their alliance with the Byzantine Empire, Christian identity, and contributions to Arabic culture positioned them as a crucial force in the region, influencing the historical narrative leading up to the rise of Islam and the subsequent transformations in Arab identity and culture.
buffer city between byzatine and Lakmid
Muallaqat/hanging poem
A collection of seven (sometimes ten) pre-Islamic Arabic poems that are considered masterpieces of Arabian poetry. These poems were composed during the 6th century CE.
perfect depiction of the pre-Islamic world traditions and values
Khadija
First wife and the first follower of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.
late 6th century
Before her marriage to Muhammad, Khadija was a wealthy and successful merchant in Mecca.
she was a symbol of female leadership
significant as she supported Muhammad in a challenging time of the opposition of the people of Mecca.
She asked him to marry her (defying stereotypes)
Jabal al-Nur
Jabal al-Nour is a mountain near Mecca in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia.
Revelation on Jabal al-Nur— the Mountain of Light C.
First revelation after climbing mountain
Followers and him memorized revelations
Mecca verses?
piety , good works, relationship between humanity and god, fear of the day of judgment (revelation)
marks the beginning of Islamic prophethood and the first revelation received by the Prophet Muhammad.
around 610
Yathrib
Yathrib is the ancient name for the city now known as Medina in Saudi Arabia. It holds significant historical and religious importance in Islamic history, as it became the destination of the Hijra (migration) of the Prophet Muhammad and his followers in 622 CE. This migration marks a critical turning point in the formation of the Islamic community.
Kaaba
The Kaaba is the most sacred site in Islam. Located in the center of the Masjid al-Haram (the Grand Mosque) in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, it is considered the House of God (Bayt Allah). It serves as the direction of prayer, for Muslims around the world and is the focal point of the Hajj pilgrimage, which is one of the Five Pillars of Islam.
The Kaaba stands as the most sacred site in Islam, symbolizing the heart of the Muslim faith and community. Its religious, historical, cultural, and spiritual significance continues to resonate with millions of Muslims worldwide, serving as a powerful reminder of their faith, unity, and devotion to God.
The Kaaba has a rich pre-Islamic history, originally thought to have been built by the prophet Ibrahim (Abraham) and his son. According to Islamic belief, the Kaaba was cleansed of idols by the Prophet Muhammad in 630 CE when he returned to Mecca after the hijra (migration) to Medina.
The Kaaba serves as a symbol of unity among Muslims worldwide. Regardless of their cultural, ethnic, or national backgrounds, Muslims come together at the Kaaba during Hajj.
Sirat Rasul Allah
Sirat Rasul Allah (The Life of God’s Messenger) is a biography of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.
Oral traditions about the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. These traditions, were orally dictated to his followers
Written by Ibn Ishaq in the 8th century, it is one of the earliest known and most important sources of information about the life of Muhammad and the early history of Islam. Though the original text by Ibn Ishaq is lost, later scholars, especially Ibn Hisham, edited, compiled, and expanded upon it to form the work we have today. This compilation is typically referred to as Ibn Hisham’s Sira.
Rashidun Caliphs
Ali was murdered in Kufa, ending the period of rule by the Rashidun Caliphs
Rightly guided deputies
- the first four leaders of the Islamic Caliphate after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE. Their leadership lasted from 632 to 661 CE and is considered a golden age in early Islamic history due to their adherence to the Quran, the teachings of Muhammad, and their emphasis on justice, equality, and community welfare. They are highly respected in Islamic tradition for their piety, wisdom, and leadership.
- Ali, Uthman, Umar, Abu Bakr
Amir al-Mu’minin
(Commander of the Faithful)
Deputy of Muhammad
Emphasis on their military role; later, they were referred to as Caliphs
title of leadership in the Islamic world. It was historically used to denote the caliph or ruler of the Muslim community, implying spiritual, religious, and temporal authority.
The title Amir al-Mu’minin first appeared during the Rashidun Caliphate, with Umar ibn al-Khattab being the first to adopt it formally.
The title conveys a leader’s authority over the Muslim community, suggesting that they are not just a ruler but also a guardian and protector of the faith. As Amir al-Mu’minin, a caliph was expected to uphold Islamic laws, ensure justice, and protect the rights of Muslims.
The caliph, as Amir al-Mu’minin, also held the responsibility to maintain unity within the ummah and lead the community in both religious and secular matters
Shura
a traditional consultative council, draws on this deep history into the pre islamic past where tribes made big decisions at these councils attended by the leading males
As the prophet muhammad lay dying (632), he called on abu bakr to lead prayer. After he died, the shura council met and decided that this meant the prophet intended to make abu bakr the leader.
In summary, shura is a fundamental concept in Islamic governance and community life, emphasizing the importance of consultation and collective decision-making. It played a crucial role in early Islamic leadership and remains a guiding principle for those who seek to align political systems with Islamic values. The practice of shura aims to ensure that decisions are made with justice, wisdom, and in the best interest of the community.
It is an essential principle rooted in the Quran and the Sunnah (teachings and practices of the Prophet Muhammad).
Ansar
(Helpers-Muslims of Medina)
Habitants of Yahtrub (Medina), evicted mo there, recognized and believed his message and coverted to Islam (second converters)
The term Ansar refers specifically to those who assisted the Muslims during a critical time in Islamic history and played a key role in the establishment of the Muslim community (Ummah) in Medina.
The Ansar (Arabic: الأنصار), meaning “the helpers,” refers to the early Muslim converts from Medina (then known as Yathrib) who played a crucial role in the establishment of Islam. They are particularly recognized for their support of the Prophet Muhammad and the early Muslim community during a critical time in Islamic history.
Ansar (Arabic: الأنصار, “the Helpers”): The Ansar were the Muslim residents of Medina who welcomed the Muhajirun into their city. They played a key role in supporting the Prophet and his followers, providing them with food, shelter, and protection.
Muhajirun
Emigrants-Meccan Muslims who moved to Medina with Muhammad
Abu Bakr and Umar were Muhajirun
The Muhajirun (Arabic: المهاجرون) were the early Muslim migrants from Mecca who joined the Prophet Muhammad in the migration (Hijra) to Medina (then known as Yathrib) in 622 CE.
Their migration marks a significant event in Islamic history, as it laid the foundation for the establishment of the first Islamic state in Medina and represents the beginning of the Islamic calendar (Hijri calendar).
Fitna
the term in a historical and religious context refers to chaos, disorder, trial, and civil war
The most notable uses of the term relate to periods of civil war and political conflict that arose among Muslims after the death of the Prophet Muhammad.
The First Fitna was a period of civil war and political turmoil that erupted following the assassination of the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan, in 656 CE.
After Uthman’s death, Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, was chosen as the fourth caliph. His caliphate faced opposition from groups within the Muslim community who sought justice for Uthman’s murder.
The Battle of the Camel (656 CE), fought between Ali and forces led by Aisha, Talha, and Zubair, who sought justice for Uthman’s murder.
The Battle of Siffin (657 CE), fought between Ali and Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria and a relative of Uthman who also demanded justice.
The First Fitna ended with Ali’s assassination in 661 CE, leading to the rise of the Umayyad Caliphate under Muawiya. It marked the first major divide in the Muslim community and set the stage for the Sunni-Shia division.
Muʿāwiyah
Was the founder of the Umayyad Caliphate and the first Umayyad caliph. He ruled from 661 to 680 CE, after the First Fitna (Islamic civil war) and the assassination of Ali.
Muʿāwiyah’s caliphate marked a major shift in Islamic history, as it founded the Umayyad Dynasty, which would rule for nearly a century.
His capital was established in Damascus, making Syria the center of Umayyad power.
caused the Sunni-Shia Split:
Following Ali’s assassination in 661, Muʿāwiyah declared himself caliph, moving the capital of the Muslim world from Medina to Damascus and establishing the Umayyad Caliphate.
a more centralized and hereditary form of rule. His leadership style differed from his predecessors; he adopted many practices from Byzantine and Persian governance, establishing administrative positions and systems that brought stability to his realm.
Abd al-Malik
(r. 685-705) and the zenith of Umayyad power
A capable military leader who could enforce unity on the battlefield
Forceful politician who claimed both religious and political authority
Abd al-MaliK builds the Dome of the Rock(Located at top of the Jewish temple in Juruslulam)
significant contributions to Islamic architecture
Abd al-Malik’s reign is often viewed as a high point in Umayyad rule, characterized by political stability, economic prosperity, and cultural development.
introduced new coins
Khalifat Allah
Deputy of God, or “Caliphate of God,” refers to the concept of caliphate in Islamic governance, where a leader is seen as a representative or vicegerent of God on Earth. This term emphasizes the caliph’s divine authority and responsibility as a Muslim community leader (Ummah).
It represents the political and religious leadership of the Muslim community following the death of the Prophet Muhammad (632).
A caliph is considered the successor to Muhammad and is responsible for upholding Islamic law (Sharia) and governing the Muslim community.
The first four caliphs, known as the Rashidun Caliphs (632-661 CE), are often considered the ideal exemplars of the caliphate model, ruling with a commitment to Islamic principles and community welfare. (Ali, Uthman, Umar, Abu Bakr)
Khalifat Rasul Allah
Deputy of the Messenger of God
This term refers to the religious and political responsibilities of the caliphate, emphasizing the caliph’s role as a representative of the Prophet and a guardian of Islamic teachings.
Guardian of Islam:
Political Leadership:
Consultative Governance:
Qubbat al-Sakhra
also known as the Dome of the Rock, is an iconic Islamic shrine located in Jerusalem, on the Temple Mount. It holds immense religious significance for Muslims, as well as historical and architectural importance.
symbol of Islamic faith and architecture (one of the earliest examples of Islamic architecture)
The Dome of the Rock was commissioned by Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan and completed in 691 CE.
The Dome of the Rock is believed to be the site where the Prophet Muhammad ascended to heaven
Ghadir Khumm
significant historical and religious event in Islam, particularly for Shia Muslims. It refers to the occasion when the Prophet Muhammad is believed to have publicly declared Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor during his final pilgrimage to Mecca in 632 CE.
one of the key moments that contributed to the division between Shia and Sunni Islam.
Shiat Ali
Those Muslims dedicated to Ali were known as the Shiat Ali (Party of Ali)
632 - after the Farewell pilgrimage, his party stops at a pawn between Mecca and Medina. Muhammad gives a sermon and makes a statement in favour of Ali (asks god to be Ali’s friend as he has been a friend to Muhammad) - Primary source: The Rightful Caliph: The Shiite Version.
Mahdi
significant figure in Islamic belief, particularly among Shia Muslims, but also acknowledged in Sunni traditions. messianic figure who is expected to appear at the end of times to restore justice and righteousness.
He is said to be a descendant of Muhammad
A just ruler who will unite Muslims and lead them during a time of disorder.
Ahi al-Bayt
Ahi al-Bayt to the decedents of Ali and his wives
Ahl al-Bayt is regarded as having a unique status in Islam, being seen as models of piety, morality, and knowledge. They are often considered the ideal representatives of Islamic values.
Ahl al-Bayt are believed to possess divine guidance, making them central figures in religious authority and interpretation.
The Ahl al-Bayt played a crucial role in the early Islamic community, influencing its political, social, and spiritual dynamics. Their contributions to Islamic scholarship, governance, and ethical guidance are highly valued.
Their teachings, sacrifices, and moral guidance continue to shape the beliefs and practices of Muslims around the world, providing a foundation for understanding the ethical and spiritual dimensions of the faith.
Khurasan
(Northeast Iran)
populated by large numbers of Iranian/Persian Muslims as well as Arabs
symbolic power is derived from the region’s importance to the emergence of one of the great Muslim dynasties, the Abbasid caliphate, in the 8th century
significant role in the development of Islamic civilization
After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, Khurasan became a crucial region for the expansion of Islam
Umayyad and Abbasid Dynasties: During the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, Khurasan served as an administrative region, playing a key role in governance and military campaigns. It was also a significant area for tax collection and trade.
Cultural Flourishing: Khurasan became a center of Islamic learning and culture, producing renowned scholars, poets, and philosophers. The region was instrumental in the intellectual blossoming of the Islamic Golden Age.
Mawla/Mawali
Mawlah (client) had to be adapted into the arab tribe to be a Muslim
Ex. Muawiyya rewarded loyalty by adapting Ziyad into his own family (Saw Ziyad as an available person to bring the empire together)
expressed loyalty and trust
It can also refer to someone who has converted to Islam from another faith and is under the protection of a Muslim community.
Bayt al-Hikma
Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom)
Originally set up by Abbasid caliphs, it was a place concerned of translating and preserving early works (Hebrew, greek, Latin, etc)
Baghdad was home to the Bayt al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom), an institution where scholars translated, preserved, and expanded upon knowledge from Greek, Persian, Indian, and other traditions. The city attracted scholars, scientists, and artists from across the world, advancing fields such as mathematics, medicine, astronomy, literature, and philosophy. (founded 762)
tolerant of religious diversity and open to foreign knowledge and experts
Ijma
Source of Authority: Ijma is recognized as a legitimate source of Islamic law, providing authoritative rulings on issues that may not be explicitly covered by the Quran or Sunnah. It serves to unify the Muslim community on legal matters.
Social Cohesion: The principle of Ijma emphasizes the importance of collective reasoning and agreement among scholars, fostering a sense of unity within the Muslim community (Ummah).
ljma (consensus of the community)
This means we have all this material that is internally contradictory
- Majority of muslims will agree together on what is right
- Established immediately after prophets death
Example: Abu bakr’s leadership was chosen on behalf of the community
Not all muslims chose this but the majority did
Sahaba
Sahaba (Companions of the prophet)
Personal relationship were key to this syetsm of islamic law
Passing on the law and education in informal family settings
Family members and clients adapted into your family told these antidotes
Much of this wasnt written down yet, most was trasmitted orally
Primary sources we read are all oral history
The Sahaba provided unwavering support to the Prophet during his mission, facing persecution and challenges alongside him, particularly during the early years of Islam in Mecca and the subsequent migration (Hijra) to Medina
Rashidun Caliphs were apart of this:
- Ali, Uthman, Abu Bakr, Umar
Taba’in
(Those who followed-the children of the companions of the prophet)
The Taba’īn played a vital role in the preservation and transmission of Islamic knowledge and practices after the time of the Sahaba. Their dedication to learning, teaching, and interpreting Islamic teachings helped shape the early development of Islamic thought and jurisprudence. The legacy of the Taba’īn continues to resonate in the study and practice of Islam, as they are respected for their contributions to the rich intellectual heritage of the Muslim community.
roughly from 632 CE to 722 CE
Halqa
(Study Circles)
Islamic scholarship based on oral transmission of reports about early Islamic history
Instruction took place in study circles (halqa) at mosques
Halqas are often associated with Islamic education, where students gather around a teacher or scholar to study religious texts, jurisprudence, or other subjects.
Significance:
Preservation of Knowledge
Community Engagement
Access to Education
