mID TERM Flashcards
French Wars
Wars of the French Republic and Empire from 1792-1814
-First Coalition 1792-1797
-Second Coalition 1798-1801
-Third Coalition 1805
-Fourth Coalition 1806-1807
-Peninsular War 1808-1814
-Fifth Coalition 1809
-Invasion of Russia 1812
-Sixth Coalition 1813-1814
-Seventh Coalition 1815
Campo Formio
- Treaty that ended the war of the First Coalition on 17 October 1797. Signed between France and Austria, with Napoleon signing for France.
- Napoleon negotiated the treaty, not the French government
Lunèville
Treaty, signed 9 February 1801 that concluded the War of the Second Coalition. Ceded all territory West of the Rhine to France, establishing its natural boundaries.
Concordat
15 July 1801, was an agreement between the Catholic Church and France. The Church gave up claim to any lands that had been confiscated after 1790, and the French government guaranteed free and open worship.
Limited War
War that is restricted in its prosecution.
Total War
War that involves an entire society structured to support it.
Triad of War
Government, Military, People
Strategic
Operational
Tactical
- Strategic: what you’re going to do to beat the enemy
The art and science of employing armed forces to secure government policy objectives - Operational: how you’re going to do it, how you’re going to get your forces to the battlefield
The process of using combat to achieve strategic objectives - Tactical: what you do when you meet the enemy on the battlefield
The art and science of using combat power to win battles through battlefield problem solving
Seven Years War
- 1756-1763 worldwide conflict between Britain and France. Peace included transferring Corsica to French control, which made Napoleon a French citizen upon Birth.
- represented the final triumph of firearms over edged weapons
- spurred introspection by French military theorists
Close Order Linear Formations
Tightly packed formations that relied on a relatively thin line of 2-3 soldiers deep to maximize volume of fire that could be achieved over a broad front.
Tercio
- Spanish formation
- Mix of pikeman and musketeers
- Anywhere between 2,000 and 3,000 men
- 2/3ds would be the pikeman
- remaining third would be the musketeers
Musketeers
Dudes with muskets. AKA not pikes.
Folard
- French officer, tactician, and theorist (1669-1762).
- Published “A Treatise on Columns and the Deep Order” in 1730, advocated use of columns and the bayonet as a response to the prevalence of the line formation.
- argued that the French should not abandon the use of shock tactics
Treatise on Columns and the Deep Order
- Published in 1730 by Folard as a response against linear formations
- “shock of cold steel”
- argued the basic infantry formation should be the column
- pointed out the weaknesses of thin linear formations
l’ordre profound
Deep order aka a column, not a line
Espirit du chevalier Folard
- The Spirit of Knight Folard
- 1760
- written by Frederick the Great
- refuted Folard’s points in the Treatise on Columns and the Deep Order
Maurice de Saxe
- 1669-1750
- Native German who served with the French army
- officer and theorist who agreed with Folard
- experimented with columns during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
- wrote Mes Rêveries/My Musings
Mes Rêveries
- written by Maurice de Saxe
- published in 1757 after his death
Advocated for: - the concept of deep order
- speed and flexibility
- dividing the army into smaller sub units for speed and flexibility
Mesnil-Durand
- 1729-1799
- Folard’s disciple
- advocated for the deep order
- argued the shock of cold steel was superior to firepower
- published the Orders of French Tactics in 1755
The Orders of French Tactics
- published in 1755 by Mesnil-Durand
- main contribution was that he advocated for massive columns
- laid the foundation for combined arms
- the three branches of the army (infantry, cavalry, artillery) should be integrated into single units for greater speed and flexibility
Duke of Broglie
- 1718-1804
- served under Marshal Saxe in the War of the Austrian Succession
- Made huge contributions to the evolution of French tactics in the 1770s, which had a significant impact on Napoleon
- formed the basis for operational level of war
- Emphasized that the army should be divided into small units, which he called “mini-armies” for speed (modern day divisions)
- mini-armies should all march towards to the same objective but on different roads, so the entire force can arrive to the battlefield more quickly
Guibert
- 1743-1790
- most important French military theorist
- published General Essay of Tactics in 1772
- hugely influential on Napoleon
General Essay on Tactics
- published by Guibert in 1772
- called for a war of movement
- called for an army of citizen soldiers
- advocated for the mixed order, combining line with column
- combined arms divisions
Grand Tactics
- coined by Guibert in 1780
- divisions should advance to the battlefield on different routes within supporting distance
- they should then deploy on the battlefield in unison
- Divide, converge, and unite
1788 Réglement
- consisted of Guibert’s ideas
- generated a backlash
- replaced by the 1791 regulation
1791 Reglément
- emphasized the close order linear formation
- kept the deep order
- allowed commanders flexibility
Bourcet
- 1700-1780
- served as chief of staff to Marshall Maillebois in the War of Austrian Succession
- published Principles of Mountain Warfare in 1761
Principles of Mountain Warfare
- published by Bourcet in 1761
- of all published works, had the largest impact on Napoleon
- Calls for the army to be divided into small units of 5,000 men (divisions), makes it easier to move along mountain passes easier; this should only be done if the units can move within supporting distance
- Identify a secondary objective and attack it using a smaller force, done while main force is attacking the enemy at the decisive point
- Advocates a war of maneuver
Gribeauval
- proposed a new artillery system to replace the Valliére System in 1764
- system was smaller, lighter, more mobile cannon
- decreased the size and weight of both gun and carriage
- standardized gun sizes
- single cast production increased gun durability and reliability
- prepackaged rounds
- best artillery system in europe
Jean Du Teil
Jean-Pierre Du Teil
- French artillery officers
- Jean-Pierre du Teil ran the best artillery school in Europe ○ Napoleon studied under the older brother
- Advocated lighter and more mobile guns
- Called for massing artillery into big battery
- The tradition was to spread those guns out
- But the brothers said no, you keep them together and use them as anti-personnel weapons rather than to counter enemy artillery fire
- Advocated for horse artillery as counter-battery fire
- Napoleon participated in many of the older brother’s experiments
“Frederician”
- Contemporaries aside from Napoleon, interpreted Frederick’s wars differently:
- perfection of limited war
- strategy of attrition
- strategy of position: give your opponent an out, battle is not necessary, victory can be achieved at the peace table at much less cost to both victor and loser
War of Position
- give your opponent an out
- battle is not necessary
- victory can be achieved at the peace table at much less cost to both victor and loser
- geographic objectives like fortresses or LOCs
Jomini
- 1779-1869
- Swiss, CoS to Marshal Ney
- believed he found the general principles of Napoleon:
1) operate against the enemy’s lines of communication
2) Mass force against only a fraction of the enemy’s forces
3) Attack the enemy’s weakest point
4) Attacks the enemy speedily at the right place and time
Principles of War
- published in Clausewit’s essay principles of War
1) Objective: direct every operation toward a clearly defined, decisive, and attainable objective
2) Offensive: seize, retain, and exploit the initiative
3) Mass: concentrate combat power at the decisive time and place
4) Economy of Force: allot minimum essential combat power to a secondary effort
5) Maneuver: place the enemy at a disadvantage through flexible application of combat power
6) Unity of Command: for every objective, ensure unity of effort under one responsible commander
7) Surprise: strike the enemy at a time and/or place and in a manner for which he is unprepared
8) Simplicity: prepare clear uncomplicated plans, and clear orders to ensure thorough understanding
9) Security: never allow the enemy to gain an unexpected advantage by obtaining critical information that is important to your operations
Army of the Alps
- French military unit that Napoleon was ordered to bring supplies to
- Saliceti got Napoleon a position in the army of the Alps
- Napoleon becomes artillery commander
- Napoleon gains fame in the Siege of Toulon
Siege of Toulon
- 29 August-18 December 1793
- French retook port from a joint Anglo-Spanish force
- Napoleon gained fame for his role in the attack
Saliceti
- representative on mission
- friend of Napoleon
- got Napoleon a position in the Army of the Alps before the Siege of Toulon (29 August-19 December 1793)
Masséna
- fruit vendor and smuggler before the army
- loved women and money
- capable soldier, product of meritocracy
- bitter because Napoleon leaped frogged over him
- won fame at the Battle of Loano
- Marshal
Augereau
- product of Paris slums
- hooked nose braggart that had served with both the Russians and Prussians
- popular among troops
- Republican
- Nowhere near as good as Masséna, but he was an able tactician
- Marshal
Sérurier
- 34 years of service in the royal army
- minor noble
- cautious, meticulous
- made honorary marshal after he retired
- served under Napoleon in the First Italian Campaign
Berthier
- Napoleon’s chief of staff for 18 years
- veteran of the American Revolutionary war
- had a special talent of taking Napoleon’s complicated orders and translating them into simple and concise terms to generals in the field
- disliked by other marshals
Piedmont Phase
- first phase of the First Italian Campaign
- Starts 10 April 1796 with Austrian offensive
- Napoleon recognized advancing columns couldn’t support one another
- attacks Argenteau’s column
- Battle of Montenotte (12 April) decides the campaign by allowing Napoleon to drive a wedge between the two enemy armies
- Napoleon uses central positioning/interior lines to mass his forces and defeat the Sardinians and Austrians in detail in multiple battles
- Culminates with the Treaty of Cherasco (28 April) that removes the Sardinians out of the war
Beaulieu
- Austrian commander
- 71 years old at the start of the Italian campaign
- inefficient and inept
Battle of Millésimo
- 13-14 April
- French under Augereau attacked fortified Austrian position at Cosseria
- French suffer heavy casualties despite ountumbering Austrians
Colli
- Austrian officer on loan to the Sardinians
- commanded about 25,000 men at the start of the campaign
- Ultimately defeated at the Battle of Mondovi (21 April 1796) and is pursued until the Armistice of CHerasco
Argenteau
- Austrian commander
- Led Beaulieu’s vanguard of initially 18,000 men
- Piedmont Phase
Armistice of Cherasco
Treaty of Cherasco
- 24 and 28 April
- removed Sardinians from the coalition
- secured Napoleon’s GLOCs
- resupplied French army
- misdirected Austrians that the French were going to cross the Po River at Valenza
Lombard Phase
- Napoleon reoganized/resupplied army from Sardinians
- Pursued Austrians
- Napoleon planned Manoeuvre sur les derriéres
- Austrian cordon Po River
- gave impression of crossing at Valenza (treaty), instead crossing at Piacenza (Surprise and maneuver)
- Battle of Fombio (8-9 May)
- Battle of Lodi (10 May)
- Enters Milan 15 May
- Austrian cordon Mincio River, strategic penetration at Borghetto
- cuts Austrian cordon in half
Battle of Fombio
- 8-9 May 1796
- fought over key bridge at Pizzighetone
- Po River
- Austrians staunchly defend, but have to withdraw due to double development
Strategic Penetration
- conducted when unable to get around flank of enemy
- example is the penetration of the Mincio River
- ordered feint attacks, kept back main body of army, until crossing bridge at Borghetto on 30 May 1796
Manoeuvre sur les derriéres
- maneuever on the rear
- pinning the enemy by a feint attack and then marching on a concealed rout while screened
- get behind your enemy, more than outflank
- attack enemy from behind or sit on LOC
- used over 30 times between 1796-1815
Battle of Legino
- 11 April 1796
- encounter battle between French and Austrians
- French stop Argenteau’s advance
- leads into the battle of Montenotte
Battle of Montenotte
- 12 April 1796
- Massena and Larharpe converge on Montenotte simultaneously
- forces Argenteau to withdraw
- French victory
- decided the campaign
- allowed the French to drive a wedge between the two enemy armies
- first time Napoleon commanded infantry in the field and fought a pitched battle
- gave French a central position
First Battle of Dego
- 14 April
- Napoleon arranges outflanking movement
- Brilliant French victory
- Argenteau retreats north to Acqui
- causes Beaulieu to retreat after learning of the battle
Second Battle of Dego
- 15 April
- fought because drunk French troops were caught off guard by Austrian attack
- brutal street fighting
- French retake Dego
Battle of Ceva
*16 April
* rearguard action by Sardinians as they withdrew
Battle of San Michele
- 18-19 April
- French victory
- looting broke out, breakdown in discpline
- Colli counterattacks and drive out French
- Napoleon takes 2 days to rest/reorganize
*Battle of Mondovi
- 21 April
- Speed of French attack did not allow Colli to deploy fully
- Sardinians panicked and led huge gaps in defensive line
- Mayor tries to stall, bust surrenders
- The significance of the Battle of Mondovi is that the Sardinians are pushed out of their final position, they are now retreating towards their capital of Turin, but for the French army the capture of Mondovi with its fully stocked warehouses greatly eased the French supply problems
Battle of Lodi
- 10 May
- Napoleon forces crossing despite not needing to
- little corporal
- significant reputation boost/psycological benefit for French troops
- reinforced Napoleon’s self-perception
Battle of Borghetto
- 30 May
- strategic penetration of Mincio River
- Kilmaine crossing with boats, Austrians unable to reinforce due to cordon without central reserve
- Beaulieu is sick, no one takes the initiative
Evolutionary Factors
- reform post Seven Years War
- increased use of skirmisher
- improved logistics
- military therorists (Folard, Maurice de Saxe, Mesnil-Durand, Duc de Brogile, Guibert, Bourcet)
- Gribeauval system
- 1791 regulations
Revolutionary Factors
- social
- “nation in arms”
- levée en masse
- soldiers/manpower cheap=battle okay
- revolution makes soldiers have honor
- cross section of society
- meritocracy
- march distance, speed, flexibility
The French Wars
Napoleon as a General
War of the First Coalition
18th Century Army Reform
L’Ordre Mince
- linear formation
- maximized firepower to the front
- not mobile
- potential for breaking under shock attack of cavalry
L’Ordre Mixte
- mixed order
- Concept is to combine line with column
- By using both you avoid the inherit weaknesses of both
5 Napoleon Strategy Tenets
1) The target must be clearly defined and every possible unit directed against it so that the army has a single line of operations 2) Only be destroying an opponent’s mobile forces can he be induced to quit the war. Thus, the main enemy army should always be the objective (most important)
3) The army must move so that it places itself on the enemy’s flanks and rear for psychological as well as strategic reasons
4) The army must always strive to turn the enemy’s most exposed or vulnerable flank to cut him off from his depots, neighboring friendly forces, or his capital
5) The army’s lines of communication must be open and safe
4 Napoleon Operational Tenets
1) Concentrate all available forces for decisive attack
2) Advance of main force must be directed against enemy’s center of power
3) On day of battle, concentrate attack on a key sector of enemy’s position
4) Immediate ruthless pursuit of enemy after victory to render enemy army incapable of further operations
Napoleon Tactical Sequence
1) Offensive Action
2) Relentless Pressure
3) Mobility
4) Flexible attack that included interchangable combination of
* bombardment
* skirmishing
* cavalry attack
* infantry attack
* light cavalry exploitation
5 Phases of Flexible Combined Attack
Phase 1: Bombardment
Phase II: Skirmishing
Phase III: Cavalry Attack
Phase IV: Infantry Attack
Phase V: Light Cavalry Exploitation
Objective
direct every operation toward a clearly defined, decisive, and attainable objective
Offensive
seize, retain, and exploit the initiative
Mass
concentrate combat power at the decisive time and place
Economy of Force
allot minimum essential combat power to a secondary effort
Maneuver
place the enemy at a disadvantage through flexible application of combat power
Unity of Command
for every objective, ensure unity of effort under one responsible commander
Surprise
strike the enemy at a time and/or place and in a manner for which he is unprepared
Simplicity
prepare clear uncomplicated plans, and clear orders to ensure thorough understanding
Security
never allow the enemy to gain an unexpected advantage by obtaining critical information that is important to your operations
Army of Italy
- armed mob
- neglected by Paris due to being on a secondary front
- before Napoleon took over:
- demoralized, exhausted, starving, not paid in 6 months
- lacked all types of supplies
Orders to Napoleon at the start of the First Italian Campaign
1) Take Ceva and knock the Sardinians out of the war
2) Resupply the army at Sardinia’s expense (make war pay for war
3) Drive the Austrians beyond the Po River
4) Take Milan
Significance of the Piedmont Phase
- Shows that Napoleon DID NOT make any type of original contribution to war
- Instead, he displayed extreme dexterity in the application of established principle
- quickly reoriented when caught by surprise
- seized the initiative
- used local numberical superiority
- labeled objectives and massed towards it
- applied principles of Guibert and Bourcet
Princples of War Acronym
OOM EMU SSS
