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mid sem exam Flashcards

1
Q

Describe:

ribosomes

A

Complexes of 2 subunits with ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein.

in cytosol or in RER

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2
Q

describe:

smooth ER

A

smooth endoplasmic reticulum involves metabolism of carbohydrates and some protein synthesis.

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3
Q

.Describe:

golgi aparatus

A

folded membranes, unconnected

transporter, can modify proteins

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4
Q

.Describe:

Lysosomes

A

hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal membrane produced in the rough ER

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5
Q

.Describe:

Vacuole

A
  • Food vacuole
    • Formed by phagocytosis
    – Contractile vacuole
    • Pump excess water out of cell to maintain
    suitable ion concentration
    – Central vacuole
    • Contains cell sap, major role in plant growth
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6
Q

.Describe:

cell membrane

A

Phospholipids are amphipathic, held together through hydrophobic interactions.

developed in the ER and the Golgi contains proteins, carbohydrates and cholesterol.

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7
Q

Describe

cell membrane viscosity

A

Cholesterol decreases the fluidity allowing for cold.

The membranes Unsaturated fatty acids will have kinks in it causing it to be more liquidy or less viscous. However the Saturated fatty acids do not have kinks and will be more viscous.

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8
Q

.Describe:

use of proteins on cell membrane

A

Transport: provide a channel for passage of proteins
Enzymatic activity:
Signal transduction:
Cell to cell recognition: by recognising the carbohydrates
Intercellular joining:
Attachment of the cell membrane to the cells cytoskeleton:

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9
Q

Describe:

use of membrane carbohydrates

A

.used in cell recognition for proteins of other cells to recept

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10
Q

Describe:

Transport though the cell membrane

A

Active and passive.
Diffusion allows non-polar molecules pass through by even charge distribution though concentration gradient.
Transport channel proteins provide a pathway
Aquaporins allow water to transport
Carrier proteins, pump molecules through energy

Endocytosis, expends large energy

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11
Q

Describe:

cells in hypo/hypertonic solution

A

Animal cells lyse in hypotonic solution, shrivel in hypertonic solution. plant cells do neither because of cell wall, they become turbid.

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12
Q

Define:

lipopolysaccharides

A

Molecules consisting of a lipid and a polysaccharide composed of O-antigen. Found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria.

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13
Q

Define

microbiome

A

Means all of the microbes in a community

Human microbiome, refers to the collective genome of resident microorganisms in the human body

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14
Q

Define

pathogen and peptidoglycan

A

A bacteria or virus that may be able to spread disease.

Polymer of sugars and amino acids forming a cell wall.

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15
Q

Describe

what prokaryotes are composed of

A

Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm includes cytosol and structures within.
DNA
Ribosomes

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16
Q

Describe:

cell walls of prokayotes

A

.gram-positive, thick wall of peptidoglycan, resists molecules passing, becomes dark through iodine alcohol

Gram negative has less peptidoglycan with an outer membrane of lipopolysaccharides

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17
Q

Explain

how might prokaryotes be helpful to the biosphere

A

they recycle many important molecules. Such as fixing atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia.

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18
Q

Explain:

how antibiotic resistance can come about

A

Evolve resistance to drugs through genetic diversity. Can occur through mutation during binary fission

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19
Q

explain:

how prokaryotes may have genetic diversity

A

Transformation which has the uptake of DNA from surroundings

Transduction has phages carry genes from one cell to another

conjugate where a doner and a recipient pass DNA, a gene determines F+ or F- status a pilus transfers the F plasmid.

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20
Q

describe

viral replication

A

obligate intracellular parasites, inside cells, genetic material is released from the capsid, the DNA or RNA is replicated using the hosts replicating process, the replicated genes are combined with replicated coats and can lyse the cell, Lytic. Or they become part of the cell integrating their DNA, Lysogenic.

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21
Q

describe

virus structures

A

Complex (bacteriophage)
Spherical (influenza)
Rod shaped (tobacco)

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22
Q

describe

bacterial restriction enzymes

A

used to stop phage replication. Bacterial DNA is kept safe through DNA methylation

23
Q

Describe

antigen, T cells and B cells

A

antigen is anything that can elicit an immune response that is foreign.

T cells: kill foreign cells (through contact or immune system cell aid)

B cells: make antibodies (bind to foreign molecule, triggering immune response)

24
Q

describe

macrophage

A

macrophage, will engulf an antigen and digest it through the lysozyme, antigen are held on the outside of the plasma membrane of the macrophage which will be used to identify through the MHC complex.

25
Describe: process of antigen with macrophage
Intracellular proteins degrade in proteasomes Peptides of amino acids are present Antigenic peptides made by proteasomes move to the ER MHC molecules bind to antigenic peptides Complex is moved through Golgi then to cell surface Presented to T cells
26
Describe plasmid
Extrachromosomal DNA which is self replicating.
27
Describe Where DNA is found in eukaryotes
DNA found in the mitochondria and chloroplast usually single circular chromosomes, also in nucleus.
28
Describe Structure of DNA
Hydrophilic sugar(deoxyribose)-phosphate back, hydrophobic bases, giving double helix. phosphate connects to the sugar connected to the base A=T has a double bond, while C-G has a triple bond. 5' end is phosphate 3' end is growing end and hydroxl
29
Describe the two types of bases
purine(AG) pyrimidine(CUT)
30
Describe DNA polymerase
Only works in the 3' to 5' direction on template strand and is called DNA polymerase 3. Produces strand in 5' to 3' direction
31
Describe DNA replication
Topoisomerase breaks, swivels and rejoins parental DNA before the replication fork (unraveling, lessening stress). Helicase unwinds DNA strands. Each strand has single-strand binding proteins which stabilise the strands.Primase synthesises RNA primers as templates for DNA pol 3.
32
Describe synthesised strands in replication bubble
Leading strand made towards replication fork. DNA pol 3 moves in 5'->3' direction Lagging strand, present are okazaki fragments. primase and DNA pol 3 enzymes required, ligase must join fragments.
33
Describe use of DNA pol 1
RNA primer needs to be replaced because it isn’t stable, DNA polymerase 1 reads the DNA and removes the RNA primer.
34
Describe Central dogma
expresses how DNA → RNA → Protein, and how this process is irreversible
35
describe transcription
Initiation: RNA pol 2 binds to template strand at promotor. Elongation: Reads, unwinds, produces Termination: hits the Termination site with a specific combination
36
Describe mRNA post transcription
5’end has a nucleotide cap and 3’ end has a poly-A-tail Splicing also occurs in the pre-mRNA once made from the DNA. The Introns are spliced out with a spliceosome(small RNA molecules)
37
Describe Translation
Initiation: mRNA, initial tRNA and 2 ribosome subunits come together Elongation: codons recognised, peptide bond formed, costin GTP then Translocation Termination: Stop codon reached, accepting release factor, promoting hydrolysis of bond between final tRNA in P site, subunits dissociate.
38
Describe strands on DNA
3”->5” is the template strand while the 5’->3’ is the coding strand. Template strand is read by RNA pol 2
39
Describe polypeptide location targeting
Signal peptides are amino acid sequences in protein used to target protein to location, may be exercised during targeting
40
# Define Chromatin
Structure of DNA and histones that form chromosomes.
41
# Define Centromere and Chromsome
Centromere is a region of DNA on the chromosome, where sister chromatids overlap (each chromatid has a centromere). Chromosomes can be singular, or duplicated and made of 2 chromatids.
42
Describe Cell cycle of mitosis
Interphase: G1: S: DNA replication, chromosomes duplicated (synthesis) G2: chromosomes are duplicated but uncondensed. Prophase: Chromosomes duplicated, formation of early mitotic spindle Prometaphase: kinetochore formation, spindle slign at poles Metaphase: formation of metaphase plate (chromosomes in a line) Anaphase: separation of chromatids, (cytokinesis events occur at the end) Telophase: nuclear envelope formation, cleavage furrow/formation of central cell wall
43
Describe Sexual life cycle of animals
gametes (n) are fertilised, forming zygote (2n) which goes through mitosis forming diploid multicellular organism, meiosis occurs to form gametes once more. This is different to plants and fungi.
44
Describe 1st stage of meiosis
Interphase: Prophase 1: duplicated homologous chromosomes (2n) pair up and crossover, spindle microtubules form nuclear envelope breaks down. Synapsis occurs Metaphase 1: chromosomes (4n) line up along equator, kinetochore microtubules form. [independent assortment of where they align] Anaphase 1: homologous chromosomes separate, sis pairs remain. Telophase 1 (cytokinesis) : haploid cells form (cleavage furrow), nucleus forms. Chromosomes (n2)
45
Describe 2nd stage of meiosis
``` Prophase 2: duplicated homologous chromosomes (2n) pair up and crossover, spindle microtubules form nuclear envelope breaks down. Metaphase 2: chromosomes (2n) line up along equator, kinetochore microtubules form. [independent assortment of where they align] Anaphase 2: Sis pairs separate. Telophase 2 (cytokinesis): haploid daughter cells / nucleus form, chromosomes (1n) ```
46
Describe non-dis junction
Non-disjunction occurs when more or less chromosomes are pulled to one side during anaphase 1 or 2 of meiosis. Resulting in changes to the number of chromsomes in cells
47
Describe binary fission
Replication begins at origin of replication on DNA Cell elongation occurs during replication Tubulin-like protein pinches inwards on plasma membrane New cell wall formed Identical cells formed.
48
Describe chromosomes in humans
46 chromosomes in each somatic cell, or 23 homologous pairs. 22 autosomes and one pair of sec chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes are similar chromosomes from paternal genes.
49
Describe Phospholipid
2 fatty acids which connect to a glycerol which connects to a phosphate head. And like proteins and cholesterol and carbohydrates.
50
Describe sites of ribosome
Codon read at the A site, the P site has the polypeptide being formed, and the E site is where the mRNA passes through and the tRNA is disassociated.
51
Describe and Explain Reasons for sweat
to cool down through evaporation, from all sweat glands. response to emotional stress, fatty sweat released from apocrine glands.
52
Describe Reabsorbtion in sweat glands
Cold causes sodium reabsorbtion, resulting in water diffusion through osmosis thus less sweat.
53
Describe antipersperant
antipersperant ions taken into cells of sweat ducts, water follows by osmosis

BIOL 1102 (2 decks)

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