MID 3

Question 1

TRUE or FALSE.
A baby born small for their gestational age is inherently premature.

Answer 1

FALSE.
Small for gestational age does not mean premature. It is related to intrauterine growth restriction which means the baby is at term but did not grow as expected (10% of births with genetic marker).

Question 2

What are some risks associated with being born small for gestational weight?

Answer 2

• Increased risk of glucose resistance (type 2 diabetes later in life)
• Hypertension due to less nephrons in the kidneys

Question 3

TRUE or FALSE.
Being SGA (small for gestational age) is associated with less impulse control. This pattern is not seen in those who were born normal sized.

Answer 3

TRUE.
Specifically, impulses relating to palatable foods such as sweet & high fat foods (and increased intake in consequence). In version of marshmallow task, they had difficulty waiting for reward (specifically girls).

This throughout life may explain increased risk for health issues (diabetes, cardiovascular disease, …).
Impulsivity also higher in those higher in catch up.

Question 4

What disease is called type-3 diabetes?

Answer 4

Alzheimer’s because insulin in the hippocampus is related to the risk of it developing, as well as dementia.

Question 5

TRUE or FALSE.
Babies born SGA are lower in sensitivity to insulin.

Answer 5

FALSE.
Due to lesser production, they are more sensitive to any presence of insulin in the system.
Due to this, they tend to grow rapidly after birth (catch up growth).

Growth percentiles are used as a measure of insulin function (catch up measure).

Question 6

Why do those high in insulin sensitivity at birth tend to become insulin resistant?

Answer 6

This is due to to the “thrifty phenotype”. Body was exposed to a condition that energy was not available and now the body tries to store as much as possible which leads to resistance.

Question 7

TRUE or FALSE.
Timing is important in terms of neglect, the longer it goes on the more severe the outcome.

Answer 7

TRUE (ex :Bucharest project).
Those who suffered more neglect had higher level of baseline cortisol and altered HPA axis which may persist due to epigenetic processes.

Also, had more synchronicity in breathing and heart rate (more disorganized) suggesting a less adaptive response of the parasympathetic NS.

Children placed in appropriate care earlier resembled typical developing kids more.

Question 8

What are epigenetics?

Answer 8

Study of how behaviours and the environment can cause changes that affect the way your genes work.

Genetic sequence is not CHANGING but environment is modifying the function of DNA (modification of gene expression).

Question 9

DNA is structured by histones (protein). Histone modification can alter how the DNA is folded. What is acetylation and deacetylation?

Answer 9

Acetylation is associated with the unfolding of DNA (less tightly coiled).

Deacetylation is associated with coiling of DNA (more tightly packed).

These two processes are less precise than methylation.

Question 10

What is DNA methylation?

Answer 10

A process that sort of blocks the binding in the promoter region of a gene, resulting in lower levels of expression of that gene.
In some cases it can lead to more expression but IN GENERAL it is less.

Active gene - There is transcription

Question 11

Maternal behaviour is important for the regulation of the HPA axis. In a study, pups were rated following birth as either high in maternal care and low. What were the findings?

Answer 11

Poor Maternal Care Group
- Epigenetic alterations in the glucocorticoid promoter region (higher methylation)
- Methylation –> Altered HPA axis and feedback system
When transferred to a high care mom, pups demonstrated changes that lead to appropriate stress response.

Good Maternal Care
No methylation —> No alterations of HPA (healthy)

Question 12

How do we study epigenetic findings in humans?

Answer 12

Post mortem findings

Ex: Suicide brain example, brains of those abuse showed lower mRNA of glucocorticoid receptor and higher methylation in promoter (suggesting alteration of HPA axis)

Question 13

TRUE or FALSE
Evidence shows that touch is important in the development of the HPA axis.

Answer 13

TRUE.
So, not only stress is important.

Tactile touch from physical contact with caregiver is necessary for normal somatic growth and development.

Question 14

For growth to occur, interaction is required. What is the enzyme that leads to said growth?

Answer 14

Ornithine Decarboxylase (simulation of this can prevent it from reducing)

Question 15

What is psychosocial dwarfism?

Answer 15

Infants who grow in conditions where they experience little to no physical contact have compromised growth and development despite adequate nutrition.

Question 16

What can telometer aging tell us about children?

Answer 16

Those with more aged telometers have a less secure attachment style.

Question 17

What happens when there is increased androgens in women?

Answer 17

Disruption of negative feedback mechanisms of GnRH and gonadotropins.

Question 18

Which teens are more at risk of developing a mood disorder?

Answer 18

Those who have a combination of genetic and environmental pressures for disordered mood. Women have 2x the risk.

Question 19

What hormones are associated with mood disorders.

Answer 19

• Cortisol (higher levels and alteration of negative feedback of HPA axis)
• TRH and THS (thyroid hormones) are in the normal range but the response is lower suggesting endocrine malfunction
  Those with hypothyroidism with medication shows depressive symptom improvements but this effect is not seen in those with normal levels.
• Deficits in estrogen (taking estradiol treatment shows improvement) PMDD
• SAD: Serotonin and Melatonin
  Higher carb consumption leading to increased tryptophan in blood leads to lower appetite (turned into serotonin). Also, abnormal melatonin due to conversion of serotonin to melatonin in pineal.
  More serotonin transporters in autumn than spring in SAD sufferers.
  Best way to help –> Light therapy with dietary alterations
• Androgens correlate to affective disorders

Question 20

What happens in men and women if androgens are abused?

Answer 20

Men: Headaches, baldness, breast development, enlarged prostate, reduced sperm count, shrinkage of testicles, aggression, mania/hypomania and paranoia

Women: Reduction of breast, menstrual problems, enlarged clitoris

Question 21

TRUE or FALSE.
The pill regulates a menstrual cycle.

Answer 21

FALSE.
It alters the cycle.

Question 22

What is a flashbulb memory?

Answer 22

Memory associated with a frightening event that is very vivid (emotionally charged).
Positive stressful events can also be remembered with great detail and clarity.

Question 23

What type of memory does not require the nervous system?

Answer 23

Immune System (fighting off diseases)

Question 24

What are the components of a memory system?

Answer 24

1. Ability to enter information into storage (acquisition and consolidation)
2. Retain Information
3. Retrieve information from storage

All 3 must operate otherwise learning will not occur.

Question 25

How do hormones affect memory systems?

Answer 25

Hormones can affect all 3 components of the memory system and affecting learning directly (affecting memory indirectly).

Note that is it hard to directly measure learning and we typically measure the results of learning.

Question 26

What are some psychological components of learning and memory?

Answer 26

• Attention
• Arousal
• Motivation

These also cannot be measured directly. These components also interact and affect one another.

Question 27

What is the inverted U shaped law in psychology (learning)?

Answer 27

Optimal learning on tasks happens in a U shaped curve in terms of arousal.
If arousal is too high or too low, learning is adversely affecting.
Moderate arousal is best (seen through hormonal correlations).

Question 28

Epinephrine is involved in learning. How is it involved?

Answer 28

Released when learning is occurring. In general, it enhances memory.

Epinephrine seems to follow the U shaped curved for arousal, meaning low and high levels of epinephrine impair but moderate levels enhance memory.

Due to its release during stressful events, may potentiate the effects of noxious stimuli in animal active avoidance tasks. This is dose and time dependent (perform better after moderate vs mild shock). Optimal level for optimal learning 1500 (pg/ml) in avoidance tasks.

Best time to administer epinephrine is immediately after training. Doesn’t work before or after long periods, supporting evidence it influences memory by potentiating the effects of NOXIOUS EVENTS.

Question 29

How does epinephrine enhance memory?

Answer 29

2 hypotheses:

1. It activates peripheral receptors that directly influence brain function.
   (Beta-noradrenergic to parasympathetic to amygdala, if pathway blocked epinephrine learning is impaired)

Ex: Study using andrenergic antagonist impairs emotionally charged learning, supporting the hypothesis that emotional memories require activation of B-andrenegenric receptors. Potential involvement in PTSD.

2. Epinephrine influences memory via its effect on blood glucose levels. Specifically, avoidance learning (glucose is also time dependent.
   Evidence shows it occurs subsequently to the release of epinephrine, complimentary to each other.

Question 30

How does glucose enhance memory?

Answer 30

Brain constantly requires glucose.
Elevated blood glucose permits more glucose to enter neurons stimulating release of acetylcholine (excitatory) from neurons.
Acetylcholine in synapses are characteristic of all known memory enhancers.

Question 31

What seems to be associated with severe memory deficits in those with alzheimers or severe AIDS?

Answer 31

Marked reduction in neurons that secrete acetylcholine.

Finding: Lemondade made with glucose showed memory improvement in elders but not young people. This may be because elder people have more difficulty regulating blood sugar, resulting in diminished ability to regulate blood glucose.

Question 32

How is insulin invovled in memory?

Answer 32

If blood glucose is related to interfere with learning, evidence shows that diabetes may lead to learning difficulties. Mostly in elders but also seen in young adults. Verbal memory is most affected.

Despite insulin not being necessary for neurons to uptake glucose, activation of these areas are correlated with learning.

Type 1 diabetes –> cognitive impairments associated with chronic hyperglycemia and reoccurence of hypoglycemia.

Type 2 –> Blood glucose disruption affecting metabolism and other

Question 33

TRUE or FALSE.
Diabetes may increase risk of dementia.

Answer 33

Impaired insulin signaling is important in the. development of Alzheimer’s which is why it is known as type-3 diabetes.

Abnormal insulin levels and reduced insulin receptors in brain are associated with Alzheimer patients with severe memory impairments. Glucose use is also reduced.

Question 34

How are glucocorticoids involved in learning?

Answer 34

Brief exposure to glucocorticoids enhances learning and memory, whereas chronic exposure appears to function as an amnesic.

Acute stress enhances hippocampus-dependent and independent learning and memory.

Chronically stressed animals make more mistakes. Glucocorticoid antagonists improve performance in maze task, subsequent studies show spatial impairment when high glucocorticoids.

Ex: Morris water maze, animals tested after electric shocks (2 min, 30 min, 4 hours). Those in 30 min showed decreased memory because it is LONG TERM stress response (longer to show effect).

Question 35

What is Cushing Sydrome?

Answer 35

Adrenal glands produce excessive cortisol , lowering volume of hippocampus.

Addison disease is the opposite, patients show necrosis of granule cells in hippocampus.