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Microbiology > Microbiology Exam 3 > Flashcards

Microbiology Exam 3 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Totality of physical and chemical processes that occur in a cell.

A

Metabolism

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2
Q

Synthesis of cell products

Requires energy

A

Anabolism

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3
Q

Breakdown of large molecules into smaller ones

Releases energy

A

Catabolism

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4
Q

Pathways of metabolic schemes are generally

A

complex and detailed

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5
Q

All biochemical reactions need the presence of a specific and special class of proteins called

A

enzymes

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6
Q

Properties of enzymes

A 
Become physically attached to substrate
Participate in bonding
Do not become part of its products
Not used up by the chemical reaction
Can function over and over again
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7
Q

Minimum energy input necessary for reactants to form products in a chemical reaction
Less if enzyme is present
More if enzyme is absent or in low concentration

A

Energy of Activation

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8
Q

Types of enzymes

A

Simple
Protein alone
Conjugated or holoenzyme(enzyme with cofactor)
Protein (apoenzyme=inactive) + non-protein (organic/inorganic cofactors)

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9
Q

The protein part of an enzyme

A

Apoenzyme

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10
Q

Short (100 amino acids) to very long chains (10^6 amino acids)

A

Apoenzyme

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11
Q

Molecular complexity (1-2-3-4-type of organization)

A

Apoenzyme

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12
Q

Unique active or catalytic sites for substrates to fit

A

Apoenzyme

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13
Q

Complex organic molecules, several of which are derived from vitamins (nicotinamide, riboflavin)
NAD = nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
FAD = flavin adenine dinucleotide

A

Coenzymes

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14
Q

Role of coenzymes

A

Carrier of functional groups [CO2, (NH3+ = amino group NH2), and others]
Work with apoenzyme to perform necessary alterations in a substrate
Removal of functional groups
Serve as transient carriers of specific atoms or functional groups during metabolic reactions

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15
Q

These enzyme accessories can be
organic such as coenzymes
inorganic, such as Fe2+, Mn2+, or Zn2+ ions
Metals participate in precise functions between the enzyme and the substrate

A

Cofactors

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16
Q

Role of cofactors

A

Activate enzymes
Help bring the active site and substrate close together
Participate directly in chemical reactions with the enzyme-substrate complex

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17
Q

Specific region where the substrate binds to the apoenzyme

Site for reaction catalysis

A

Active or catalytic site

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18
Q

Steps involved in a chemical reaction

A

Enzyme fits substrate at the active site and forms a complex
Bonds are formed between enzyme and substrate
Reactions occur on the substrate
Cofactor aids in the reactions
Product is formed and released
Enzyme attaches to another substrate molecule
Cycle is repeated

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19
Q

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ==> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy(ATP+heat)

Organic compounds + oxygen ==> carbon dioxide + water + energy

A

Aerobic respiration

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20
Q

Oxidation or breakdown of glucose into two molecules of pyruvic acid
Occurs in the cytoplasm of all cells
It is the most commonly used sequence of reactions for the conversion of glucose into pyruvate
Produces 2 ATP’s, 2 NADH’s and 2 H2O molecules
Does not require oxygen

A

Glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway)

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21
Q

Discovered by Egleston and Krebs
Occurs in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes and in mitochondria of eukaryotes
Process the final 2-C molecule (Acetyl-CoA) coming from pyruvic acid obtained from the degradation of glucose (6C) via glycolysis
Cycle has 8 steps, reduces 2 FAD and 8 NAD’s, releases 2 CO2 and produces 2 ATP’s by substrate level phosphorylation

A

Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) or Krebs cycle

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22
Q

Occurs in cell membrane of prokaryotes and in mitochondria of eukaryotes
Made of a chain of special redox carriers that received electrons from reduced carriers
Produces 34 ATP’s and 6 H2O molecules
In aerobic metabolism, oxygen is the final electron acceptor and combines with H ions (protons) to form water
In aerobic metabolism, other ions may act as final electron acceptors

A

Electron transport system (ETS)

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23
Q

Explains the origin and maintenance of electro-potential gradients across a membrane that leads to ATP synthesis, by ATP synthase (oxidative level phosphorylation)
The energy obtained is used to regenerate up to 38 ATP (this number may vary among microbes) for each glucose molecule catabolized

A

Chemiosmotic theory

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24
Q

Glycolysis
Tricarboxylic acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
Electron transport system (ETS)

A

Aerobic respiration

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25
Q

Anaerobic respiration

A

Fermentation

Fermentor

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26
Q

The anaerobic enzymatic conversion of pyruvic acid to organic acid or alcohol or other organic compounds producing energy in the form of ATP
Incomplete oxidation of glucose or other carbohydrates in the absence of O2
Organic molecules can serve as final electron acceptors
Inorganic salts can also serve as electron acceptors: NO3-, SO4^-2, CO2, ATP, organic acids, H2S, CH4
2 ATP’s maximum per glucose molecule
25% of the energy of glucose transferred to ATP

A

Fermentation

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27
Q

Occurs in facultative anaerobes, aerotolerant, strict anaerobes
Allows independence from O2 and allows colonization of anaerobic environments
Enables microorganisms with a versatile metabolism to adapt to variations in the availability of oxygen
Bacteria that digest cellulose in the rumen of cattle are largely fermentative providing the animal glucose, a source of energy
The phosphogluconate pathway is an alternative anaerobic pathway

A

Anaerobic respiration

Fermentation *

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28
Q

A large tank used in industrial microbiology to grow mass quantities of microbes that can synthesize desired products
These devices are equipped with means to stir, monitor and harvest products such as a variety of organic acids and alcohols in very large quantities

A

Fermentor

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29
Q

Pertains to the metabolic pathways that serve multiple functions in the breakdown, synthesis, and conversion of metabolites

A

Amphibolism

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30
Q

Metabolic pathways that connect anabolic and catabolic reactions to improve efficiency
Intermediate compounds such as pyruvic acid and acetyl CoA serve multiple functions
With comparatively small chemical modifications they can be converted into other compounds and enter a different pathway
Catabolism of glucose furnishes numerous intermediates for anaerobic pathways that synthesize amino acids, fats, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates which can serve as building blocks for the synthesis of other compounds

A

Intermediary metabolism and amphibolic compounds

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31
Q

Reactions that produce and convert amino acids

A

Amination
Transamination
Deamination

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32
Q

Pyruvic acid can be converted to amino acids by adding NH4+

A

Amination

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33
Q

An amino acid such as (aspartic acid) and a carbohydrate (alpha ketoglutaric acid) will make another amino acid (glutamic acid) and oxaloacetic acid

A

Transamination

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34
Q

Amino acids can be used as a source of glucose (gluconeogenesis) releasing NH4+

A

Deamination

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35
Q

The study of the inheritance, or heredity, of living things

A

Genetics

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36
Q

The transmission of biological properties (traits) from parent to offspring
The expression and variation of those traits
The structure and function of the genetic material; and how this material changes

A

Scope

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37
Q

The genetic material of a cell that is found in several different forms, with the majority existing as large complexes of DNA and proteins

A

Chromosome

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38
Q

The sum total of the genetic material residing on chromosomes
Viral genomes are different (DNA or RNA)

A

Genome

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39
Q

independently replicating, small double-stranded DNA molecules found in some bacterial species

A

Plasmid

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40
Q

Contain genes that are not essential for cell growth
Bear genes that code for adaptive traits
Transmissible to other bacteria
DNA also present in chloroplasts and mitochondria

A

Plasmid

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41
Q

A site on a chromosome that provides information for a certain cell function
A specific segment of DNA that contains the necessary code to make a protein on RNA molecule

A

Gene

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42
Q

The genetic makeup of an organism

Ultimately responsible for an organism’s phenotype, or expressed characteristics

A

Genotype

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43
Q

The observable characteristics of an organism produced by the interaction between its genetic potential (genotype) and the environment

A

Phenotype

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44
Q

How many genes does the smallest virus have?

A

4 or 5

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45
Q

Genomes vary in

A

Size

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46
Q

What is the length of Escherichia coli?

A

1 micrometer

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47
Q

What has a single chromosome containing 4,288 genes?

A

Escherichia coli

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48
Q

What has a chromosome that measures about 1 mm if stretched out it will be about 1,000 times its length

A

Escherichia coli

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49
Q

A human has about ______ genes distributed into __ chromosomes

A

30,000; 46

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50
Q

DNA structure

A

Nitrogenous bases (purines and pyrimidines)
Five carbon (pentose) sugars
Nucleotide
Other terminology

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51
Q

DNA copies itself just before cellular division by the process of

A 
semiconservative replication
DNA replication 
(each 'old' strand is the template upon which each 'new' strand is synthesized) 
Leading strand
Lagging strand
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52
Q

replicated at two forks as directed by DNA polymerase III
At each fork, two new strands are synthesized - one continuously and one in short fragments
Mistakes are proofread and removed

A

circular bacterial chromosome

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53
Q

Types of RNA molecules

A 
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Primer
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54
Q

Carries the DNA master code to the ribosome

A

mRNA

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55
Q

A cloverleaf shape, carries aminoacids to ribosome during translation

A

tRNA

56
Q

Structural form of RNA that together with a protein makes a ribosome and participates in protein synthesis

A

rRNA

57
Q

An RNA that can begin DNA replication

A

primer

58
Q

Cellular structure where protein synthesis occurs
Assembly of the small and large subunits results in specific site (P and A) for holding the mRNA and two tRNAs with their aminoacids

A

ribosome

59
Q

The flow of genetic information

DNA replication => Transcription => Translation

A

dogma of biology

60
Q

mRNA synthesis

The process by which a strand of RNA is produced from a DNA template

A

Transcription

61
Q

a newly transcribed RNA molecule

A

Transcript

62
Q

Protein synthesis

The process of decoding the messenger RNA code into a polypeptide

A

Translation

63
Q

Codons of mRNA that specify a given aminoacid
The 4 different nitrogen bases of RNA in all possible combinations of 3
64 codons or triplets (4^3=64)
The universal language of life!

A

Genetic code

64
Q

Coding sequences (exons) are interrupted at intervals by segments called introns that are not part of the protein’s code

A

The split gene of eukaryotes

65
Q

transcribed but not translated

junk DNA

A

introns

66
Q

removed by RNA splicing enzymes before translation

A

introns

67
Q

Genes are active only when their products are required

A

gene regulation

68
Q

Genetic function in prokaryotes regulated by a specific collection of genes

A

operon

69
Q

consist of a coordinated set of genes, all of which are regulated as a single unit

A

operon

70
Q

Types of operons

A

inducible (turn or switch on)

repressible (turn or switch off)

71
Q

Best understood operon, accounts for the metabolism of lactose in E. coli

A

lac operon

72
Q

illustrates how inducible genes are controlled by substrate

A

lactose (lac) operon

73
Q

Control of a gene through excess nutrient

Proof that the environment has a great influence on gene expression

A

repressible operon

74
Q

Changes in the genetic code can occur by two means:

A
  1. Mutation (permanent changes in the nucleotide sequence of an organism’s genome)
  2. Genetic recombination
75
Q

Types of mutation

A

Point mutation
Nonsense mutation
Frameshift mutation

76
Q

A change that involves the loss, substitution, or addition of one or a few nucleotides
Genotype changes but not the phenotype

A

Point mutation

77
Q

A mutation that changes an amino acid-producing codon into a stop codon, leading to a premature termination of a protein

A

Nonsense mutation

78
Q

An insertion or deletion mutation which changes the codon reading frame from the point of the mutation to the final codon
Almost always leads to a nonfunctional protein

A

Frameshift mutation

79
Q

Mutations can either be _______

A

spontaneous (low frequency) or chemically-induced

80
Q

Genetic recombination in prokaryotes occurs through the processes of:

A

Transformation
Conjugation
Transduction

81
Q

In eukaryotes, genetic recombination occurs through

A

sexual reproduction

82
Q

Genes that can relocate from one part of the genome to another, causing rearrangement of genetic material
May have either beneficial or harmful consequences for the organism involved

A

Transposons

83
Q

Palindromes:

A

Inverted repeats of an order of nitrogen bases
Occur in all cells
Vary in size
Involved in heavy regulatory function
Binding sites for enzymes
Provide starting sites for DNA replication
Relieve tension in DNA structure

84
Q

Palindromes are cut or cleaved by ______ at desired sites

A

restriction enzymes (RE)

85
Q

They recognize foreign DNA and nick them at these sites

A

restriction enzymes (RE)

86
Q

Name 3 restriction enzymes:

A

EcoRI, HindIII, HaeIII

87
Q

Types of enzymes

A

Exoenzymes
Endoenzymes
Constitutive
Regulated enzymes

88
Q

Extra-cellular action
Hydrolysis
Penicillases, cellulase, amylase

A

Exoenzymes

89
Q

Intra-cellular action

Most are of this type

A

Endoenzymes

90
Q

Always present and in constant amount in cell regardless the amount of substrate

A

Constitutive enzymes

91
Q

Not in constant amounts in cell
Produced only when substrate is present (inducible)
Turned off when substrate is absent (repressed)

A

Regulated enzymes

92
Q

Factors affecting enzyme activity

A 
Temperature
The higher the more unstable or labile
pH and chemicals
Osmotic pressure
Heavy metals
93
Q

Occurs when weak bonds of apoenzyme are broken
Distorts the shape of the enzyme
Prevents the substrate from attaching to the active site

A

Denaturation

94
Q

Add or remove functional groups

A

Transfer reactions

95
Q

When a molecule loses or gives or donates electrons

Liberation of energy

A

Oxidized

96
Q

Gains or receives or accepts electrons

Gains energy

A

Reduced

97
Q

These reactions are common in microbial cells and indispensable for life processes

A

Redox reactions

98
Q

Group of enzymes that can remove electrons from one substrate and add them to another

A

Oxireductases

99
Q

Types of enzymes according to the chemical group transfer they perform

A 
Aminotransferases: NH3+
Phosphotransferases: PO4^3-
Methyltransferases: CH3
Decarboxylases: CO2
Dehydrogenases: H+
Transferases: C, N, P, S
Hydrolases: H20
Isomerases: Isomeric
Lyases: Double bonds
Ligases: Form bonds
Lipases: Fats
Deoxyribonucleases: DNAase
Synthetases/polymerases: Synthesis
Cellulase: Cellulose
Lactase: Lactose
Aldolases: Aldehydes
Oxidases: Oxidation
100
Q

Aminotransferases

A

NH3+

101
Q

Phosphotransferases

A

PO4^3-

102
Q

Methyltransferases

A

CH3

103
Q

Decarboxylases

A

CO2

104
Q

Dehydrogenases

A

H+

105
Q

Transferases

A

C, N, P, S

106
Q

Hydrolases

A

H20

107
Q

Isomerases

A

Isomeric

108
Q

Lyases

A

Double bonds

109
Q

Ligases

A

Form bonds

110
Q

Lipases

A

Fats

111
Q

Deoxyribonucleases

A

DNAase

112
Q

Synthetases/polymerases

A

Synthesis

113
Q

Cellulase

A

Cellulose

114
Q

Lactase

A

Lactose

115
Q

Aldolases

A

Aldehydes

116
Q

Oxidases

A

Oxidation

117
Q

Key common words that describe the action of enzymes:

A

Add, remove, cleave, bond, hydrolize, dehydrolize, change, alter, break, catalyze, digest, transform, attach, synthesize, convert, etc.

118
Q

These reactions proceed in a systematic, highly regulated manner that maximizes the use of available nutritents and energy

A

Metabolic reactions

119
Q

Regulation of __________ is the regulation of enzymes by an elaborate method of checks and balances

A

metabolism

120
Q

These reactions occur in a multi-step series or pathway, with each step catalyzed by an enzyme

A

Metabolic reactions

121
Q

Patterns of metabolic pathways

A

Linear
Cyclic
Branched

122
Q

Other molecules with a structure similar to the normal subtrate can occupy the enzyme’s active site

A

Competitive inhibition

Direct control on the behavior of enzymes

123
Q

End product being fed back into the system negates (cancels) an enzyme’s activity
A+B———Enzyme———> C
C will build up and cancel the catalytic action of the enzyme

A

Feedback control

Direct control on the behavior of enzymes

124
Q

These enzymes have an additional regulatory site for the attachment of molecules other than the substrate. Distort active site so no binding to substrate occurs without denaturation.

A

Allosteric enzymes

125
Q

Control of enzyme synthesis

A

Enzyme repression

Enzyme induction

126
Q

Excess product turns off genetic program in DNA

A

Enzyme repression

127
Q

Enzymes appear only when suitable substrates are present
Synthesis induced by its substrate
Adaption to the environment
Ex. E. coli will produce lactase in the presence of lactose to yield gluose and galactose
E. coli will produce sucrase in the presence of sucrose to yield glucose and fructose

A

Enzyme induction

128
Q

Capacity to do work or cause change

A

Energy

Bioenergetics

129
Q

Energy that is not spent

A

Potential energy

130
Q

Energy that is freed

A

Kinetic

131
Q

Cells extract energy from _____ and apply it towards useful work

A

bonds

132
Q

When energy is released then the reaction is

A

Exergonic

133
Q

When energy is absorbed then the reaction is

A

Endergonic

134
Q 
High energy phosphate molecule
Stores and releases energy
Unique molecular structure
A temporary energy repository
Bond releases energy when broken
Negatively charged (PO4^3-)
A

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

135
Q

The high energy charge originates in the orientation of the phosphate groups
Negative charges impose strain on bonds
Removal of the terminal PO4^3- releases the bond energy
Formed by substrate level phosphorylation and photophosphorylation

A

Other properties of ATP

Microbiology (2 decks)

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