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BIO1337 - Microbiology > Microbes/Fungi > Flashcards

Microbes/Fungi Flashcards

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1
Q

How many fungal spores do people inhale per day?

A

1,000 to 10 billion

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2
Q

What can increase the amount of spores inhaled

A

Catastrophic flooding or Category 5 hurricane

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3
Q

Are fungi friends to foes?

A

Both

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4
Q

How can fungi act as friends?

A
  • Terrestrial ecosystem
  • Recyclers
  • Provide food
  • Material for packaging and clothes
  • Medicine
  • Enzyme
  • Model organisms
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5
Q

How can fungi act as foes?

A
  • Crop disease
  • Wild-life disease
  • Causes allergy and human diseases
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6
Q

What are fungi killing in 2020/2021?

A
  • Frogs
  • Crops
  • Humans
  • COVID
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7
Q

What can plastic-eating fungus help fight?

A

Plastic waste

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8
Q

What are some global challenges?

A

-Water crisis
-Energy costs
-Land degradation
-Political conditions
-Climate change
Pest and pathogens

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9
Q

What are the main crops that feed the world?

A
  • Wheat
  • Rice
  • Maize
  • Soya bean
  • Potato
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10
Q

What are 5 major threats to global food security?

A
  • Wheat stem rust
  • Rice blast
  • Corn smut
  • Soybean rust
  • Potato late blight
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11
Q

How many people could be feed if not for the annual looses of food due to fungi and oomycetes?

A

600 - 4,000 million people 2000 kCal per day for a year

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12
Q

What do new final pathogens threaten?

A

Ecosystem resilience

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13
Q

How many ash trees in the died due to fungal pathogen?

A

150 million

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14
Q

What does Aspergillum niger produce?

A

Different commercially relevant enzymes

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15
Q

What can white rot fungus Trametes vericolor be modified for?

A

Biofuel cells

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16
Q

What does studying microbes include?

A
  • Bateriology (Archaea and mycoplasmas)
  • Virology (Viroids)
  • Phycology (restricted to mycology and oomycetes)
  • Protozology
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17
Q

How are microorganisms measures?

A

In metric units

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18
Q

What are eukaryotic and bacteria microorganisms measured in?

A

Micrometers and mass

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19
Q

What are virus measured in?

A

Nano meters

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20
Q

What are atoms and molecules measured in?

A

Angstroms (A)

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21
Q

What are the different methods involved in microbiology?

A
  • Microscopy
  • Sterilisation
  • Pure culture methods
  • Molecular biology
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22
Q

Who first viewed Giardia lamblia?

A

Leewenhoek

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23
Q

What did Robert Hook develop?

A

Compound microscope

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24
Q

What is good about confocal microscopy?

A
  • Specificity
  • Resolution
  • Live cell imagery
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25
Q

What are autoclaves?

A

Under high pressure and temperature able to sterilise liquid medium

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26
Q

What are microbiological filters?

A

Passage through filter causes sterilisations

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27
Q

What can used to sterilise a sample?

A

Autoclaves

Microbiological filters

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28
Q

What did Koch’s Postulate demonstrate?

A

The pathogenicity of a microorganism

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29
Q

What leads to microbial diversity?

A
  • Time line

- Origin of life

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30
Q

How many microbes are estimated to be in 2017?

A

100 billion and 1 trillion

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31
Q

What leads to diversity of microbes?

A

Adaptation to enviroment

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32
Q

What are the methods of classifying microbial diversity?

A
  • Morphological diversity
  • Metabolic diversity
  • Ecological diversity
  • Genetic diversity
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33
Q

What is taken in to account in terms of classification by morphological diversity?

A

Features, structures aid of microscopy

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34
Q

What is taken in to account in terms of classification by metabolic diversity?

A

Biochemical aid of enzymology

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35
Q

What is taken in to account in terms of classification by ecological diversity?

A

E.g extremophiles

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36
Q

What is taken in to account in terms of classification by genetic diversity?

A

gene sequences aid of molecular biology, DNA sequencing, genome comparison

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37
Q

What are different shapes of microbes?

A
  • Coccus
  • Rod
  • Spirillum
  • Spirochete
  • Hypha
  • Stalk
  • Filamentous
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38
Q

What is morphological diversity sufficient for?

A

Distinguishing prokaryotes and eukaryotes

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39
Q

What is morphological diversity insufficient for?

A

Distinguish microbe types that appear the same

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40
Q

What are different biological difference to determine metabolic diversity?

A
  • Energy source

- Carbon source

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41
Q

What are the different types of energy sources?

A

Chemotropic

Phototrophs

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42
Q

What are the different types of carbon sources?

A
  • Heterotrophs

- Autotrophs

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43
Q

What is ecological diversity?

A

Microbes rate of survival in extreme conditions

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44
Q

What are the different types of microbes based on environmental factors?

A
  • Hyperthermophile
  • Psychrophile
  • Halophile
  • Acidophile
  • Alkaliphile
  • Barophile
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45
Q

What is genetic diversity based on?

A

DNA sequencing comparing the genome from different microbes

Alterations in genes allows molecular phylogenetic tree

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46
Q

How is ribosomal RNA gene sequencing and phylogeny carried out?

A
  • Pure culture/environmental sample cells lysed and DNA isolated
  • Gene-encoding ribosomal RNA is isolated and amplified by PCR
  • Amplified rRNA gene is sequenced
  • Obtained sequences aligned by computer
  • Tree depicts difference in rRNA sequence between organisms analysed
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47
Q

What is the length of line proportional to on a phylogeny tree?

A

Evolutionary distance

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48
Q

What did Carl Woese do?

A

rRNA analysis of methanogens and 3 domain of life

Compared bacteria and eukaryotes

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49
Q

What data supports rRNA for 3 domains?

A
  • Transcription - RNA polymerase
  • Translation
  • Membranes
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50
Q

How does transcription support rRNA for 3 domains?

A

Bacteria = 4 subunits
Eukarya = 10-12 units
Purification showed 8 or more subunits present in Archaea

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51
Q

How does translation support rRNA for 3 domains?

A

Sensitivity to inhibitors suggest Archaeal translation is more like Eukarya than bacteria

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52
Q

How does membranes supports rRNA for 3 domains?

A

Bacteria, eukaryotes - phospholipid bilayer = ester linkage

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53
Q

What are the fundamental difference of archaea membranes?

A
  • Linkage of hydrophobic side chain

- Type of side chain

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54
Q

What does horizontal gene transfer effect?

A

Phylogenic trees of non-essential genes particularly in prokaryotes

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55
Q

Are fungi plants or animals?

A

Neither

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56
Q

What are fungi more closely related to animals or plants?

A

Animals

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57
Q

How are fungi citizens of modern society?

A
  • Ethnically diverse, ancient community
  • Manufacturing factory worked, recyclers
  • Model organism
  • Diseases
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58
Q

When did fungi diverge from other live?

A

1500 million years ago

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59
Q

When did fungi probably colonise land?

A

During Cambrian

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60
Q

When did terrestrial fossils become common?

A

400 million years ago

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61
Q

How did fungi aid the extinction of dinosaurs?

A
  • Meteor struck
  • Dust cloud enveloped Earth, fungal bloom
  • Iridium peak and layer of fungal spores
  • Dinosaurs body temperature lower, subject to infection
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62
Q

How many named species are there of fungi?

A

140,00

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63
Q

How many species estimated are there of fungi?

A

1.5 to 5.1 million species

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64
Q

What is the oldest and largest organisms?

A

Armillaria mella = Honey fungus

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65
Q

How are fungi manufacturing factory workers?

A
  • Enzymes
  • Drugs
  • Organic acids
  • Biofuels
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66
Q

Why are fungi crucial players in our ecosystem?

A
  • 96% of all land plants live in association with fungi
  • Major decomposers of organic matter
  • Grow in very toxic condition and remove metals and radioisotope from solution
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67
Q

What do fungi teach us?

A

Principles of how a cell operate

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68
Q

What and why did Paul Nurse receive

A

Nobel Prize

Used fungus fission yeast investigate the cell cycle

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69
Q

Why do fungi act as serious threats to mankind?

A
  • Rot houses

- Destroy crops

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70
Q

How do fungi act as agents of disease to humans?

A

Threat to immune-comprimised

Threat less than bacteria and viruses

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71
Q

How do fungi act as agents of disease to plants?

A

Greater threat than nematodes, bacteria and viruses

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72
Q

Can fungi act as bioterrorism?

A

Yes

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73
Q

What do bioweapons attack?

A

Livestock, crops or ecosystem

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74
Q

What are features of a fungal?

A
  • Eukaryotic
  • Unicellular growth
  • Filamentous growth
  • Dimorphic switch
  • Heterotrophs
  • Secret enzymes
  • Fungal wall
  • Storage compounds
  • Typically haploid
  • Produce sexual and sexual spores
  • Plastic genomes
  • Metabolic flexibility
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75
Q

What factor can cause a dimorphic switch in fungals?

A

Temperature

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76
Q

Define heterotroph:

A

An organism which cannot fix carbon from inorganic sources but uses organic carbon for growth

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77
Q

How do fungi obtain nutrients?

A

Externally digest

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78
Q

What makes up the fungal wall?

A

Chitin
Glucans
Ergosterol

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79
Q

What do fungi contain in storage compounds?

A

Mannitol
Trehalose
Glycogen

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80
Q

Why does the genome of fungi plastic?

A
  • Core and dispensable chromosomes
  • SNPs
  • Effectors
  • Retro DNA/transposons
  • Emerging new virulent races
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81
Q

What does Opisthokonts mean?

A

Posterior flagellum

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82
Q

What are considered to be Opisthokonts?

A
  • All true fungi
  • Chytrids
  • Microscoridia
  • Collar-flagellated protists
  • Kingdom Animalia
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83
Q

What was the last common ancestor between the fungal and animal kingdom?

A

Monosiga brevicollis

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84
Q

Describe Monosiga brevicollis features:

A

Unicellular
Aquatic
Motile

85
Q

When did fungi diverge from animal kingdom?

A

800-900 million years ago

86
Q

What does comparative genomics reveal about the fungal kingdom?

A
  • Fungal genomes lack sequences controlling multicellularity in animals and plants
  • Animals, plants and fungi probably diverged at a unicellular grade of organisation
87
Q

What features do Microsporidia, Cryptomycota, Blastocladiomycota and Chytridiomycota all have in common?

A

Single-celled
Water living
Motile asexual spoores

88
Q

Give a summary of fungal evolution:

A
  • 18rRNA sequences
    1. Fungi diverged from water moulds (Oomycetes)
    2. Formed aseptate filaments
    3. Septa
    4. Clamp connections in Basidiomycetes
    5. Asexual spores
    6. Asci - sexual spores
    7. Fruiting bodies
    8. Holobasidium
    9. Mushroom fungi
89
Q

Fungal Phyla: what is considered higher fungi?

A

Basidiomycota
Ascomycota
Glomeromycota

90
Q

Fungal Phyla: what is considered lower fungi?

A

Zygomycota
Chytridiomycota
Microsporidia
Cryptomucota

91
Q

Are fungi and microspordia closely-related or not?

A

Closely related

92
Q

What are microspordia?

A

Obligated intracellular pathogens

93
Q

What do microspordia infect?

A

Animals and insects

94
Q

How many microspordia species infect humans?

A

Causes diarrhoea, eye, muscular, respiratory and genitourinary infections

95
Q

When was microspordia first described?

A

1857

96
Q

Describe the structure of microspordia:

A
  • Smallest of eukaryotes
  • Unicellular
  • Lack mitochondria, peroxisomes and centrioles
  • Prokaryotic features (70S ribosomes/ fused 5.8S/28S rRNAs
  • Fungal features: nuclear division, fungal wall
97
Q

What is phylum 2 of fungal systematics?

A

Crytomycota

98
Q

What is the phylum 1 of fungal systematic?

A

Microspordia

99
Q

How many species are in crytomycota?

A

30

100
Q

What does crytomycota lack?

A

Lack chitin cell walls present in fungi

101
Q

What does lack of chin crytomycota cause?

A

Becomes phagotrophic parasites that feed by engulfing or live inside other cells

102
Q

How do crytomycota feed?

A

Taking in nutrients from outside cell

103
Q

What is the phylum 3 of the fungal systematics?

A

Chytridiomycota

104
Q

Where are Chytridiomycota found?

A
  • Aquatic environments living as parasites of algae and planktonic plants
  • Soil living as saprotrophs on pollen or parasites on vascular plants
105
Q

How many species are there in Chytridiomycota?

A

980-1200 species

106
Q

How many flagellum are losses from Chytridiomycota during evolution of fungi?

A

3-4

107
Q

What is the life cycle of Chytridiomycota?

A

Thallus becomes sporangium (asexual) and releases zoospores

108
Q

What are Chytrids important in food webs?

A
  • Zoospores are food sources for phytoplankton
  • Decompose organic matter
  • Convert inorganic compounds to organic compounds
  • Parasites to aquatic plants and animals
  • Anaerobic chytrids in rumen and hindguts
109
Q

What has Chyrtridiomycota causes a massive extinction of?

A

Species

110
Q

What are features of Chyrtridiomycota?

A

Simple microscopic molds within chitin walls and swimming spores

111
Q

What is the phylum 4 of the fungal systematic?

A

Zygomycota

112
Q

How many species are in Zygomycota?

A

> 1600 species

113
Q

What are features of Zygomycota?

A
  • Multinucleate mycelium = no septa
  • Asexual spres in a sporangium
  • Two hyphae fuse to form zygote
114
Q

How are Zygomycota elecological diverse?

A
  • Saprotropic (soli and dung)
  • On mouldy fruit and bread
  • Parasitic on insects
115
Q

What does Zygomycota Mucor spp cause?

A

Zygomycosis on humans, frogs, cattle and pigs

116
Q

What is Zygomycota Mucormycosis?

A
  • Infect immune-compromised patients
  • Second most common fungal infection in haematological malignancy
  • 50 to 90% motility
  • Risk increases with diabetes, steroids, other immune-suppressive treatments, high serum iron levels
117
Q

What is phylum 5 of the fungal systematics?

A

Glomeromycota

118
Q

What is coenocytic?

A

Without division along the length of the filament

119
Q

How many species are Glomeromycota?

A

200+

120
Q

What are Glomeromycota?

A

Microscopic obligate intracellular mutualistic symbionts of almost all plant roots

121
Q

What does Glomeromycota form?

A

Arbuscular mycorrhizal

122
Q

What are features of Glomeromycota arbuscular mycorrhizal?

A
  • Obligate symbionts formation of arbuscules in plant roots
  • Large, multi-nucleate
  • Non-septate hyphae
123
Q

What is considered to be the most sophisticated basal or lower fungi of the fungal systematics?

A

Glomeromycota

124
Q

What is phylum 6 of the fungal systematic?

A

Ascomycota

125
Q

What is the largest group of the fungi kingdom?

A

Ascomycota

126
Q

What are features of Ascomycota?

A
  • Filamentous fungi and some yeasts
  • Most licensed fungi
  • Spetata hyphae
  • Carry sexual spores in sac like structures called ascus
127
Q

What can Ascomycota be act as?

A
  • Plant pathogens
  • Human pathogens
  • Drug manufacturers
  • Food fungi
  • Edible fungi
  • Model organisms
128
Q

What is an ubiquitous human pathogen?

A

Candida albicans

129
Q

What is the phylum 7 of the fungal systematic?

A

Basidiomycota

130
Q

How many species are Basidiomycota?

A

50,000

131
Q

Are Basidiomycota a diverse group?

A

Yes

132
Q

How are Basidiomycota a diverse group?

A

Difference morphologically, ecologically and taxonomically

133
Q

What are structure of Basidiomycota?

A
  • Septum and dolipores
  • Sexual reproduction = basdiospores on basidium
  • Asexual reproduction - clamp connection
134
Q

What is asexual reproduction involving clamp connection?

A

Allow nuclei to migrate from one cell to another

135
Q

What are the four different types of lichens?

A
  • Cructose
  • Squamulose
  • Foliose
  • Fruictose
136
Q

What are crustose lichens?

A

Crust like and adhere tightly to the surface upon which they grow

137
Q

What are squamulose lichens?

A

Composed of scale-like parts

138
Q

What are foliose lichens?

A

Leaf-like, composed of flat sheets of loosely bound tissue

139
Q

What are fruticose lichens?

A

Composed of free-standing branching tubes

140
Q

What are lichens?

A

Mutualistic association between fungus and photosynthetic algal or cyanobacterial pater

141
Q

How many lichen species are known?

A

30,000

142
Q

What does lichen symbiosis nearly always involve?

A

Ascomycota

143
Q

Why are lichens important?

A
  • Animal food
  • Pollution bioindicators
  • Source of using acid (antibiotics)
144
Q

What is the structure of lichen?

A
  • Upper cortex of fungal hyphae
  • Later containing photobiont cells
  • Medulla of fungal hyphae
145
Q

Why are lichens considered resilient?

A

Dominate life forms in all sorts of unusual environments

146
Q

Historical perspective of fungal biotechnology:

  1. 1914:
  2. 1929:
  3. 1942:
  4. 1953:
  5. 1955:
  6. 1967:
  7. 1984:
  8. 1987:
  9. 2000s:
  10. 2017:
A
  1. Strain selection/ Koji process
  2. Fleming and antibiotics
  3. Tatum and Beadle “one gene, one-enzyme”
  4. Roper - parasexual analysis
  5. Backis and Stauffer - initiated mutagenesis in penicillin
  6. Pirt and Righelato - continuous culture
  7. Ball - parasexual breeding
  8. Recombinant DNA/transformation
  9. Nurse, Cell cycle, genomics
  10. CRISPR/CAS
147
Q

What are fungi pioneered for?

A

Genetic analysis

148
Q

Why are fungi a major toll for classical genetics?

A
  • Easy growth
  • Short life cycle
  • Most haploid
  • Sexual stage
  • Produce asexual spores
149
Q

Why do fungi serve as a good models for biochemical studies?

A
  • Simple nutrients required

- Can directly correlated with genetic studies

150
Q

Define heterothallic species:

A

Sexes that reside in different individuals

151
Q

What do heterothallic species require to produce sexual spores?

A

Two compatible homothallic patterns capable of sexual reproduction from a single organisms

152
Q

Define homothallic species:

A

Possession, within a single organism, of resources to reproduce sexually

153
Q

Biologically fungi are:

A
  • Versatile metabolically
  • Form hyphae network/mycelium
  • Polarised growth
  • Ascomycetes or Basidiomycetes or Zygomycte
154
Q

What must a fungus be able to do for industrial uses?

A
  • Spores easily inoculated into large fermenters
  • Grow rapidly and form product in large-scale cultures
  • Produce the desired product in relatively short period of time
  • Grow in a relatively inexpensive nutrient in bulk quantities
  • Not be pathogenic
  • Amenable to genetic manipulation
155
Q

What can fungi be used for?

A
  • Food
  • Biological control agents
  • Primary metabolites
  • Secondary metabolites
  • Heterologous hosts for secretion
  • Aflotoxins
156
Q

What is fungal immunosupressant drugs?

A

Entomopathogenic fungus

157
Q

What are basic tools for a fungal biotechnologist?

A
  • Good understanding of biology and taxonomy of fungi
  • Collection and isolation of samples
  • Access to fungal culture collections
  • Preservation
158
Q

What are two different growth kinetics?

A
  • Surface culture

- Submerged culture

159
Q

What are different types of fungi in fermenters?

A
  • Solid sate
  • Submerged liquid
  • Batching culturing
  • Fed batch
160
Q

What is solid state fermentation?

A
  • Koji process
  • Many years
  • Old fashioned
  • Cheap
  • Effective
161
Q

What is submerged liquid fermentation?

A
  • Chemostat
  • Highly controlled
  • Substrates must low
162
Q

What is batch culture?

A

All harvest at a particular time

163
Q

What is continuous culture?

A

Continuously adding substrate and harvest so never clean chemostat

164
Q

What gives better improvements of fermentation?

A
  • Strain improvement

- Production improvement

165
Q

Give examples of therapeutic metabolites (fungal products):

A

Amino acids, penicillin, cephalosporins, Peptides, cyclosporine, Ergot alkaloids, Lovastatin

166
Q

What is an example of alfotoxin?

A

Sclerotia of Claviceps purpurea

167
Q

What does Clavicepes purpurea?

A
  • Ergotamine
  • Ergine
  • LSD
168
Q

What symptoms can Clavicepes purpurea causes?

A

Sensation of burning, vasoconstriction, limb numbness, cold, gangrene, rotting of fingers, toes, hands

169
Q

What are organic acids products of fungals?

A
  • Citric acid
  • Itaconic acid
  • Fumaris acid
170
Q

What are examples of fungal enzymes?

A
  • A-amylase
  • Amyloglucosidase
  • Pectinase
  • Protease
  • Lipase
171
Q

Where do95% of all fungal enzymes come from?

A

Aspergillus niger

172
Q

What is the most abundant organic compound on Earth?

A

Cellulose

173
Q

What are examples of cellulose biodegradation?

A
  • Endoglucanases
  • Cellobiohydrolases
  • B-glucsidase
174
Q

What is a cellulotyic fungi?

A

Fermntable sugars, ethanol, paper and pulp industry, textile industry, animal feed, biofuels

175
Q

What is the second abundant as a renewable carbon source?

A

Lignin

176
Q

What does lignin 2 protect?

A

Cellulose

177
Q

How does white rot fungi depolymerise lignin?

A

By lignin and Mn-peroxidases

178
Q

What organic acid does Aspergillus niger produce?

A

Citric acid

179
Q

What percentage of citric acid is used in food industry?

A

70

180
Q

What percentage of citric acid is used in pharmaceutical industry?

A

20

181
Q

What percentage of citric acid is used on chemical industry/cosmetics?

A

10

182
Q

How is citric acid produced?

A 
D-glucose
2x Pyruvate
Acetyl-Coa
Oxaloacelate
-Citrate
183
Q

What are different types of B-lactam antibiotics nucleus?

A
  • Penicillin nucleus
  • Cephalosporin nucleus
  • Monobactam nucleus
  • Carbapenem nucleus
184
Q

What size are viroids ssRNAs?

A

150-400bp

185
Q

What do viroids cause?

A

Plant disease

186
Q

What is the viroid replication mechanism?

A

Unknown

187
Q

Does viroid have a protein coat envelope?

A

No, its naked

188
Q

What is the average size of a virus?

A

20-200 nm

189
Q

Can viruses be naked or enveloped?

A

Both

190
Q

How much space does the capsid cover the virus?

A

60-95%

191
Q

How much space does the nucleic acid core cover the virus?

A

5-40%

192
Q

What do you call a coat and core in a virus?

A

Nucleocapsid

193
Q

Does virus contain RNA or DNA?

A

Both

194
Q

Does virus contain single stranded or double stranded RNA/DNA?

A

Both

195
Q

What are the symptoms of foot and mouth virus?

A

Mouth sores, debilitation and lamelessness in sheep and clooven hoofed animals

196
Q

How do you control foot and mouth virus?

A

Had to kill

197
Q

What are the symptoms of blue tongue virus?

A

Lameness/swallowing tongue/death of sheep

198
Q

What is the vector of blue tongue virus?

A

Midges

199
Q

What is the size of a mycoplasmas?

A

0.1 micrometer

200
Q

Does mycoplasmas have a small or large genome?

A

Small

201
Q

How many genes are in genome of mycoplasmas?

A

650

202
Q

What does mycoplasmas lack?

A
  • Enveloped nucleus

- Trye wall

203
Q

What diseases do mycoplasmas cause?

A

Plant and animals disease

204
Q

What is included in the protists?

A

Algae, protozoa, slime moulds, water moulds/oomycetes

205
Q

What are example of slime moulds?

A

Myxomycota

206
Q

What are features of slime moulds?

A
  • Wall-less
  • Cellular
  • Acellular
  • Brightly coloured
207
Q

What are different types of water moulds related to oomycota?

A
  • Damping off disease
  • Downy mildews
  • White rusts
  • Late Blight
208
Q

How helped to the development of discovery of penicillin?

A
  • Alexander Fleming
  • Howard Florey
  • Ernst Chain
  • Norman Heatley
  • Charles Fletcher
  • Albert Alexander
  • Dorothy Hodgkin
209
Q

How much of B-lactams is the antibiotic market?

A

+65%

BIO1337 - Microbiology (18 decks)

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