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Michelle's Content Flashcards

1
Q

1.2

Hypotheses vs Prediction

A
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2
Q

1.2

How much replication do we need?

A
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3
Q

1.2

Experiment methods in ecology

Strengths + drawbacks

There is 4

A

Lab experiments
Benefits:
* highly controlled
* easy to replicate

Drawbacks
* Limited application to real world

Field Experiments
Benefits:
* More applicatble than lab experiments

Drawbacks:
* random environmental variables producing noisy data
* Effect of your treatment should be stronger than the random noise

Observational studies
Benefits:
* Can quantify patterns in nature (quantify real world patterns)

Drawbacks:
* a lot of variables to measure
* statistically intensive

Biodiversity database
Benefits:
* Contains ENORMOUS amount of data

Drawbacks
* Quality of data not guaranteed
* Data not collected by consistent methods

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4
Q

2.1

5 key processes that determine the abundance and distribution of species

Just a summary here

A
  1. Abiotic requirements
  2. Biotic interactions
  3. Evolution
  4. Dispersal
  5. Stochasticity
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5
Q

2.1

Abiotic requirements

examples too

A

Abiotic requirements: non-living part of an ecosystem that shapes its environment

Examples: moisture, temperature, sunlight, salinity, nutrients, pH level

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6
Q

2.1

Biotic interactions

with examples

A

Biotic interactions: a living organism that shapes its environment.
Even though the abiotic condition fits the species, if they have a strong competitor, they cannot exist there.

Examples: symbiotic relationship (parasites, pathogens, herbivores/predators/competitors)

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7
Q

2.1

Evolution

What does it do to abundance/distribution

A
  • Determine the abundance/distribution of species by looking at where the speices evolved
  • Ex) polar bears are not found in Antartica because they are evolved to survive in Arctic, and they cannot disperse through the tropics to get to souther hemisphere
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8
Q

2.1

Dispersal

How about for plants? animals? difference between migration?

A

Dispersal: ability / capacity for movement
* short / long distances
* For plants -> seed movement
* For animals -> move thousands of km

Migration: type of dispersal in response to seasonal variation
* The whole population does a round trip

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9
Q

2.1

Stochasticity

when is this a big deal

A

Stochasticity: random changes in the relative abundance of species
* big deal if population is quite small

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10
Q

2.1

How allele frequencies change over time

4 things (just a summary here)

A
  1. Mutation
  2. Natural selection
  3. Gene flow
  4. Genetic drift
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11
Q

2.1

Mutation

Define it

A

Mutation: change in DNA
* Can be beneficial/bad/neutral
* copy errors that heppened during cell division
* Mechanical change
* Without mutation, evolution CANNOT occur

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12
Q

2.1

Natural selection (& evolution)
- Genes/alleles
- phenotype

Define and describe them using those terms

A

Evolution: change in alle frequencies in a population over time
* Ecology sets the stage for evolution to occur (environment… competition…)
* Genes: made of DNA(specific protein structure)
* Allele: genetic makeup of an individual (1 from 1 parent)

Natural selection
* Individual with certain heritable traits leave more offsprings = more successful trait to survive
* responsible for modification part of evolution
* traits are only beneficial in certain condition = never more superior than the other
* Individuals with more advantageous traits leave more offsprings
* Phenotype: observable characteristics influenced by genotypes

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13
Q

2.1

3 types of natural selection

A

Directional selection
* 1 phenotype extremely favoured
Stabilizing selection
* Intermediate phenotype favoured
Disruptive selection
* Both phenotypic extremes favoured (creating 2 different species eventually)

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14
Q

2.1

Genetic drift
* 4 effects on small populations
* 2 consequences of genetic drift

A

Genetic drift: when random chance determines which alleles are passed to the next generation

4 Effects on Small Populations:

  1. Allele frequencies fluctuate at random (some alleles may disappear… others may become fixed)
  2. Genetic variation of the population is reduced
  3. Frequency of harmful allele may increase
  4. Chance events may lead to allele fixation in one population and loss from another population

2 Consequences of Genetic Drift

  1. Reduces ability of population to respond to changing environmental conditions
  2. Increase in harmful allele may decrease population and survival ability/reproduction (as population size fell, harmful alleles fixed by chance)
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15
Q

2.1

Gene flow
- 2 effects of gene flow

A

Gene flow: new alleles moving one place to different population

2 Effects of Gene Flow:

  1. Populations become more similar
  2. New alleles can be introduced into a population
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16
Q

2.1

Genetic drifts vs gene flow

What happens to the different populations

A

After genetic drift:
* Populations no longer identitcal
* Increased among-population genetic variation

After gene flow:
* Gene flow can result in populations becoming more similar
* Decreased among-population genetic variation

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17
Q

2.1

How does trophy hunting result in the volution of smaller horns in bighorn sheep?

Summarize what happened

A
  • Largest males possess genes for fast growth and big horns
  • Trophy hunting removes largest males from population before they reach sexual maturity
  • Genes for fast growth & big horns are removed from the popualtion
  • Result: mean horn length has decreased over time = negative linear relationship between mean horn length and year
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18
Q

2.2

What is life history trait

A

Recorded events related to growth, reproduction, development and survival of organism

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19
Q

2.2

Life history trait includes

A
  • age at sexual maturity
  • body size
  • fitness
  • when reproduction occurs
  • survival / mortality rate
  • mode of reproduction (sexual/asexual)
  • reproducing once? multiple times?
  • r-selected vs k-selected
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20
Q

2.2

Why care about life history trait?

A
  • LHT is highly related to lifetime span: how long the organism lives (it’s easier to measure age of maturity than how long each single organism lives for yk?)
  • Fitness: Organism’s contribution to next generation (hard to track every single eggs)
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21
Q

2.2

How does temperature affect ectoterm body size?
What is temperature size rule

A
  • Body size is often related to offspring #, survival rate, size of prey, population growth rate
  • Temperature has strong effect on body size

Temperature size rule: Temperature reduces body sizes of ectotherm

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22
Q

2.2

LHT variation
Reaction norm

2 types of variation

A

Genetic variation

  • Just due to genetic variation in individuals
  • ex) I have dark brown hair

Phenotypic plasticity

  • LHT variation due to environmental differences
  • How flexible the trait is in response to environmental changes
  • Phenotypic plasticity evolves
  • Reaction norm: graphical way of depicting how plastic a trait is
  • steeper slope = more plastic
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23
Q

2.2

Thermal reaction norm terms
Topt
CTmax
CTmin

A

Topt = temperature at highest growth rate
CTmax = higheset temperature where growth stops
CTmin = lowest temperature needed growth to happen

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24
Q

3.1

Define population, population size, and population density

A

Population: a group of individuals of the same species that live in a particular area and interact with one another
Population size: total # of individuals
Population density: total # of individuals in a given space = population / area

Ex) 2500 lizards / 20 hec = 20 lizards per hec

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25
# 3.1 Examples of asexual reproduction
**Budding:** clonal offspring detaches from the parent **Apomixis:** clonal offspring produced from unfertilized eggs (ex) dandelion) **Horizontal spread:** clonal offsprings produced as the organism grows horizontally (ex) strawberry)
26
# 3.1 Genets vs ramets
**ramet:** a single physiological individual produced by clonal propagation **genet:** group of ramets that originate from a single seed (ex) aspen grove)
27
# 3.1 Absolute vs relative population size
**Absolute population size:** actual population abundance = all individuals **Relative population size:** # of individuals in one time period or place relative to the # in another Ex) every year, I could flies in UBC and Jericho Beach and put that on grpah and see changes (hoping this will be a good representation of all fly population trend in Vancouver)
28
# 3.1 Methods to measure the abundance of individuals within populations or species | 2 types
**Area-based counts** * used for sessile organisms (not moving) * **Quadrats:** sampling areas of specific size * Must be a good representation of the entire area * individuals are counted in several quadrats and averaged to estimate population size **Mark-recapture** * used for mobile organisms * a subset of individuals captured -> marked -> released -> later you randomly capture individuals and see how many are marked * N = MC/R * N = estimated population * M = # of individuals marked + captured * C = # of individuals captured later * R = # of marked individuals in C
29
# 3.1 Population dynamics 2 types of variations in population
**Population dynamics:** changes in population size over time or space **Temporal variation:** population size changing over time (2000 vs 2024) **Spatial variation:** population size in species A might be 1500 in location x but 5000 in location B
30
# 3.1 5 different patterns of population growth | chill just list them
1. Exponential 2. Logistic 3. Population fluctuations 4. Population outbreaks 5. Population cycles
31
# 3.1 Exponential growth
* J-shaped * rate of growth increases/decreases in proportion of the current # of individuals
32
# 3.1 Logistic growth
* S - shaped * # of individuals increase rapidly at first -> stabilize as population reaches *k*
33
# 3.1 Define **carrying capacity**
**Carrying capacity:** max population that can be supported by environment
34
# 3.1 Population fluctuations vs population outbreaks vs population cycles
**population fluctuations:** # increase / decrease from an overall mean **Population outbreaks:** # of individuals in a population **explodes** at certain times **Population cycles:** regular highs & lows of population that happens naturally
35
# 3.2 Why fluctuation in population growth rate can increase risk of extinction
A population that fluctuates grows slower than does not fluctuate Smaller the population = bigger chance of extinction from fluctuation
36
# 3.2 Effective population size what does reduction of EPS lead to
**Effective population size:** # of individuals that can leave offsprings to the next generation Reduction of EPS result in an **extinction vortex** smaller population -> smaller EPS -> extinction
37
# 3.2 Extinction vortex | DEEP BREATH ## Footnote 7 steps
1. Human caused / nautral events reult in small population size 2. **inbreeding depression/genetic drift/demographic stochasticity/environmental stochasticity** 3. Loss of genetic diversity = no evolution 4. Reduction in fitness to adapt 5. HIgh mortality / less population 6. Smaller EPS 7. Extinction **Inbreeding depression:** 근친 **Genetic drift:** random events affect which alleles are passed on **Demographic stochasticity:** some individuals just produce more offsprings than others **Environmental stochasticity:** there are good / bad years that just affect all individuals that decreases genetic diversity Ex) hurricane, earthquake
38
# 4.1 4 processes of population size change
birth, death, immigration, and emigration Nt+1 = Nt + B - D + I - E B = b x N D = d x N Assumptions: b & d are constant in density independent
39
# 4.1 Geometric population growth
**Geometric population growth:** organisms reproduce at discrete time period * population size changes by a constant proportion from 1 discrete time period to the next * # of individuals added is larger each time period * Results in J shaped set of points * Nt+1 = λNt * λ = geometric growth rate (it's a constant)
40
# 4.1 Exponential growth
**Exponential growth:** organisms reproduce continuously over time * Also J-shaped * When individuals reproduce continuously, generations can overlap * dN/dt = rN * r = exponential population growth rate * N(t) = N(0)e^rt
41
# 4.1 When is there no growth? | both geometric and exponential
Discrete growth: λ = 1 Continuous growth: r = 0
42
# 4.1 When is there posiive/negative growth? | both geometric and exponential
Positive growth: * λ>1 * r>0 Negative growth: * λ<1 * r<0
43
# 4.1 Density independent factors include:
* weather conditions * Catastrophes * Climate change | density랑 상관없이 population을 바꿀 수 있는 것
44
# 4.1 Density dependent factors include:
* predation / competition * disease * Not b & d aren't constants | Have major effects on population size
45
# 4.1 Density-dependent population growth rate | impacts on B D dispersla rates
* The amount of resources (food/habitat) influence population size * B & D & dispersal rates change as density of population changes * As density goes up -> b down d up dispersal up N down
46
# 4.2 Logistic growth
**Logistic growth:** population increases rapidly, then stabilizes at *k* * Density dependent growth * dN/dt = rN(1-N/K) * (1-N/K) depicts the population slowing down * WHen N = almost 0 = behaves like exponential * WHen N = almost *k*, no population change over time
47
# 4.2 Metapopulation
**Metapopulation:** set of isolated populations inked by dispersal * some populations may be **sources** of individuals that disperse to other populations * Other populations are **sinks** that receive more immigrants than the # of emigrants they produce * Individual populations may go extinct
48
# 4.2 Local extinction vs regional extinction
**Local extinction:** a single population disappears **Regional extinction:** all populations in the system die out
49
# 6.1 5 types of species interaction | + - 0 포함
1. Mutualism (+/+) 2. Commensalism (0/+) 3. Carnivory/herbivory/parasitism (+/-) 4. Ammensalism (0/-) 5. Competition (-/-)
50
# 6.1 Distinguish between: * Predator * Carnivore * Herbivore * Parasite * Parasitoid
**Predation:** predators feed on + directly harm individual on prey **Carnivory:** predators and preys are animals (plants can be carnivores too though) **Herbivory:** predator animal prey plants (some animals do both carnivory & herbivory) **Parasitism:** predator = parasites liveon the prey = host and consumes certain tissues * may not kill the host * some parasites cause disease (pathogen) **Parasitoids:** insects that lay eggs on or in another insect host (They're more like parasites than predators because they don't kill the host immediately)
51
# 6.1 Carnivores vs harbivores | 5 differences
1. Carnivores kill their prey - herbivores usually don't 2. Plant prey is more abundant, but low on nitrogen content + less nuritous than animal prey 3. Most carnovores are generalists (일단 고기면 다 먹음) (some animals have preference) 4. Most **NOT ALL** herbivores are specialists (specializes on leaves) 5. Most insect herbivores feed on one or a few plant species
52
# 6.1 4 phases of population cycle
1. Increase 2. Peak 3. Decline 4. Low phases
53
# 6.1 Birth rate is determiend by
1. Density dependent processes 2. Predator related interactions
54
# 6.1 Death rate is determined by
1. Food limitation 2. Predation
55
# 6.2 Parasites Pathogens Macroparasites Microparasites
**Parasites:** consumes the tissues / body fluids of the organism on which it livs (host) **Pathogens:** parasites that cause disease **Macroparasites:** large species, such as arthropods and worms **Microparasites:** microscopic Ex) bacteria
56
# 6.2 Characteristics of parasites | big 3
1. Typically harm, but don't kill the host immediately 2. Most species are attacked by more than 1 kind of parasites 3. Many parasites are specialists (evolve/adapt closely to the host)
57
# 6.2 Ectoparasites vs endoparasites
**Ectoparasites:** live on the body surface of the host (tick) **Endoparasites:** live inside their hosts (instead of eating tissues, rob nutrients)
58
# 6.2 How to count parasite population size | micro vs macro
Micro: you can't count every single one of them so you count the # of hosts infected Macro: can count # of individuals (big enough)
59
# 6.2 How to keep suspecable small
vaccination Culling (kill)
60
# 6.2 How to make m/B big
Quarantine PPE Social distance Antibiotics Sanitation
61
# 8.1 What can parasites do to the host | 5
1. Reduce host population 2. Reduce host's geographci range 3. Parasite removal reduces host population fluctuation 4. Parasites can alter the outcome of competition 5. Can alter physical environment

BIOL230 (2 decks)

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