Methods: Section B (Booklet contents) Flashcards
Structure for 15 marker? (Generic)
For each element ie sampling tech. :
- knowledge and understanding
WHAT IT IS (ELEMENT) - application of elements in context of investigation
HOW WOULD USE - justification of elements
WHY - links to own experience
OWN PRACTICAL IE REPLICA GRANT
4 main methods of investigation AND examples
- self report
Surveys, questionnaire’s, interviews - a correlation
Statistics (scatter graphs), ie maths based) - an observation
Watching people - an experiment
Only scientific method: lab, field, quasi
Non- experimental methods
Observation techniques
Self report
List all ethical guidelines and outline briefly what they are
- informed consent
Participant told what is required so can make informed decision to take part - respect
Value the dignity and worth of all ps - right to withdraw
Tell ps they have the right to withdraw including their data at any point
-confidentiality
Right to expect their information is treated confidentiality and if published unidentifiable that it’s theirs
- competence
High levels of competence + operating to function within recognised limits - responsibility
Value their responsibilities including avoidance of harm and prevention of misuse or abuse of their contributions - protection of participants
Protect ps from physical and mental harm during investigate - debrief
Ps are aware they have taken part in an investigation and provide the ps with any necessary information to complete their understanding - integrity
Value honesty accuracy clarity and fairness in their interactions with all persons - deception
Misleading of ps is unacceptable if they are likely to object once debriefed
List and briefly explain what all the methods for investigating behaviour
- observation
Watching - experiment
Testing for cause and effect - self report
Asking questions - correlation
Testing for a relationship - case study
In depth study of one person or small group
Give the research methods and briefly explain what they are
- experimental
Only way to show cause and effect - non- experimental
Describe behaviour and see patterns
Name and explain the different types of studies
- Longitudinal study
Long experiment - snapshot study
Quick / one day
What is a laboratory experiment
Artificial and highly controlled
What is field experiment
Naturalistic experiment
What is quasi experiment
IV naturally occurring
Observation
Watching variables / people in situation
Survey / questionnaire
Self report method
See peoples attitudes
Correlation
Relationship
Looking for a relationship between 2 co-variables
Advantages of laboratory experiment
Highly controlled (control other factors)
Disadvantages of laboratory experiment
People being observed may change their behaviour so results not always accurate - high demand characteristics
Not in natural environment, so results may vary
Short:
- not always accurate because demand characteristics
- not natural environment (low ecological validity)
Advantages field experiment
Natural environment / don’t know being observed so more accurate - naturalistic
Low demand characteristics
Disadvantages of field experiment
Lower control
Advantages quasi experiment
Easier because variable is established (don’t need to manipulate situation)
Disadvantage quasi experiment
Less flexible
Advantages observation
Collect true results / behaviours - low demand characteristics
Disadvantages observation
Time consuming
Not always covert / may know being watched
Advantages Survey / questionnaire
Varied opinions
Measuring cognitions (only method)
Disadvantages survey / questionnaire
May not be valid / truthful
Socially desirable responses
Advantages correlation
Useful for making predictions
Pre- experiment
Disadvantages correlation
Can’t state cause and effect (scientific)
Types of sampling techniques
Random
Opportunity
Self selected / volunteer
Snowball
Random sampling
Every member population equal chance of appearing in sample
Opportunity sample
Asking people who are available at the time
Self selected / volunteer sample
Participant choose themselves
Snowball sampling
Get participants from existing ones asking friends / family / relevant people when they need a bigger sample
Advantage of random sampling
Usually get a range of participants from large area
Not bias
Most representative
Disadvantage random sampling
Not always possible / practical
Not everyone willing
Chance bias
Time consuming
Advantage opportunity sampling
Good way to find relevant people
Quick / easy
Disadvantages opportunity
Hard to get non bias / wide range sample
Likely to be ethnocentric
Advantages self selected
Participants most keen / willing
Disadvantages self selected
Most likely to obedient / certain type of people ie students
Snowball sampling advantage
Easy way to gain more participants
Disadvantages snowball
Less direct / controlled as to who takes part
IV
Manipulated
DV
Measured
Experiment method
What does
How
Show cause and effect
By controlling testing environment so only IV is different between 2 or more groups
Confounding variable
variable that influences both the dependent variable and independent variable
Types of experimental designs
Repeated measures
Independent measures
Matched pairs
Repeated measure
Same participants in each condition / group
Independent measures
Different participants in each conditions
Matched pairs
Different but similar participants
Positive and negatives of repeated measures
P
Consistence - can compare results
N
Fatigue effect
Positive and negatives of independent measures
P
No fatigue effects
N
Confounding variable: diff personalities
Positive and negatives of matched pairs
P
Similar but no fatigue effect
N
Still different people even if similar
Participant variables
Characteristics of ps ie age
Order effects
Ps get bored / tired / preform differently between condition A and B
Fatigue effects
Decline in performance - becoming tired / bored with task
Practice effects
Any change or improvement in results from repeating task - effects validity
Counterbalance
Method for dealing with order effects where each condition comes first in equal measure
Alternate hypothesis
Participants who … will .. significantly …. In ….. than participants who
Include IV and DV + operationalise
One tailed hypothesis
Participants who …. Will be … than with …..
One tailed
Name
What does
Directional
Predicts direction of a difference between groups
Two tailed
Name
What does
Predicts that there will be a significant difference between groups
Two tailed hypothesis structure
There will be a significant difference between … and …
Type 1 error
Researcher accepts alternative hypothesis when they should have accepted null hypothesis
Type 2 error
Researcher accepts the null hypothesis when they should have accepted the alternative hypothesis
Question types
Open
Closed
Scale questions
Types of scales
Semantic differential rating scale
Likert scale
Semantic differential rating scale
Have 7 points separated by 2 opposing adjectives
Osgood scale
Points separated by two opposing adjectives
Likert scale
Ps respond to a statement usually to show how much they agree or disagree with it
Open questions
Ps responds by writing as much as they want
Closed questions
Ps have forced choice of answers - yes or no in response to a provided statement
Positive and negatives of open question
P
Qualitative data - detail and words
N
Hard to analyse (use content analysis, but time consuming )
Positive and negatives of closed questions
P
Easy to analyse because contains quantitive data
N
Limit responses so not entirely valid
Positive and negatives of scales
P
Quantitative data, easy to amylose
N
Subjective - different people answer differently (interpretation)
Structured interviews
Fixed set of questions (same for all)
Positive and negatives of structured interview
P
Standardised
N
Time consuming
Skilled researching required
Limits the responses
Semi structured interview
Fixed set of questions but allows interviewers to introduce new questions
Positive and negatives of semi structured interviews
P
Unrestricted answers
More structured but more freedom
N
Less replicable
More distracted
Unstructured interview
May have set of discussion topics but are less constrained about how the conversation goes
Positive and negatives of unstructured interviews
P
Getting lots of detailed data
N
Easily distracted / off topic
Inter rated reliability
Extent to which different observers are able to observe and rate the Same behaviour in the same way
At least 80%
If high = more reliable
Reliability
Consistency and replicability
Participant observation
Observer acts as part of group being watched
Positive and negatives of participant observation
P
See close hand - better insight
N
Hard to stay objective
Distractions / hard to record during multitasking
Non participant observation
Experimenter does not become part of group being observed
Positive and negatives of non participant observation
P
Remain objective throughout
N
Far out: hard to see and know what is going on
Naturalistic observation
Behaviour is studied in a natural situation where everyone has been left as normal
Positive and negatives of naturalistic
P
Generalisable: not changing situation, can apply to other situations + real behaviours seen
High ecological validity
N
Difficult to / low in control
Controlled observation
Some variables are controlled and manipulated by the experimenter
Positive and negatives of controlled observation
P
High control
N
Low ecological validity
People unlikely to behave how they normally would
Overt observation
Ps know they are being observed
Covert observation
Ps are aware they are being observed
Positive and negatives of overt observation
P
Ethical
N
Demand characteristics (likely)
Positive and negatives of covert
P
Low demand characteristics (likely)
N
Unethical (if somewhere ps think private, not public spaces where they expect to be seen)
Time sampling
Observations made at regular time intervals
Event sampling
Observers record specific occurrences of predetermined behaviours every time they occur continuously throughout the whole duration of observation period
Positive and negatives of event sampling
P
More focussed on observing
N
Could miss important behaviours
Positive and negatives of time sampling
P
Get all behaviours
N
Loose focus
Positive correlation
Negative correlation
Co variables
Hypothesis for correlation
Write hypothesis for correlational study;
Taller people tend to be more successful in their careers
Null hypothesis for correlation
Strengths of correlation
Negative of correlation
ADD FLASHCARDS FOR RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY ONWARDS.
FINISH!
