methods in context Flashcards
⭐️ How to Structure a 20-Mark Methods in Context Answer:
PEEL Paragraphs x3
• Point: State a relevant characteristic of the method and link it to the context of education.
• Explain: Explain why this method is useful (or not) for researching the specific aspect of education.
• Example: Use sociological studies or real-world examples to support your point.
• Link: Link back to the question and explain how this impacts validity, reliability, representativeness, or ethics.
🎯 How to Score Full Marks:
• ✅ Explicitly refer to the method in the question
• ✅ Constantly link to the education context (e.g., classroom dynamics, teacher-student relationships, school policies)
• ✅ Mention practical, ethical, and theoretical (PET) factors
• ✅ Use named studies (e.g., Willis’ ‘Learning to Labour’, Ball’s ‘Beachside Comprehensive’)
🔥 Quick Revision Mnemonic:
“GRAVE PET”
• Generalisation
• Representativeness
• Access
• Validity
• Ethics
• Practical issues
• Ethical concerns
• Theoretical perspective
📚 Common Research Methods and How They Apply to Education:
Strengths+ Weaknesses in Education Context
Questionnaires- ✅ Quick and cheap to distribute in schools ✅ Anonymity encourages honesty on sensitive topics like bullying ❌ Low response rates from students ❌ Misunderstanding of questions
Structured Interviews-
✅ Standardised questions improve reliability ✅ Teachers may feel more comfortable in a formal setting ❌ Power imbalance between interviewer and student ❌ Students may give socially desirable answers
Unstructured Interviews -
✅ Allows rapport with students and teachers ✅ Gathers in-depth, qualitative data ❌ Time-consuming ❌ Ethical issues with discussing sensitive topics
Participant Observation
✅ First-hand experience of school dynamics ✅ High validity when observing teacher-student interaction ❌ Gaining access to schools is difficult ❌ Researcher may become biased
Official Statistics
✅ Large-scale data on educational achievement ✅ High representativeness ❌ Lacks depth and personal experience ❌ Schools may manipulate results (e.g., league tables)
Unstructured Interviews in Education Context AO1+2
AO1 (Knowledge):
Unstructured interviews are informal, flexible, and allow for open-ended responses. They are often used to gain in-depth understanding of student experiences, such as teacher labelling or anti-school subcultures.
AO2 (Application to Education Context):
• Suitable for sensitive topics like bullying or teacher labelling, as students may feel more comfortable opening up.
• Can build rapport with students or teachers, allowing access to hidden experiences (e.g., racism or streaming).
Unstructured Interviews in Education Context AO3
Mnemonic- “DRIP”
• Depth of data
• Reliability is low
• Informed consent issues
• Power imbalance
AO3 (Evaluation):
✅ High validity due to depth of data
✅ Allows follow-up questions for clarification
❌ Low reliability due to lack of standardisation
❌ Ethical issues when discussing sensitive topics
Strengths in Education Context:
1️⃣ Useful for understanding hidden processes like teacher expectations and pupil subcultures.
2️⃣ Allows access to working-class students’ lived experiences, as seen in Paul Willis’ ‘Learning to Labour’ (1977).
Weaknesses in Education Context:
1️⃣ Power imbalance between researcher and students could lead to social desirability bias.
2️⃣ Time-consuming and difficult to gain access to schools due to safeguarding policies.
Synoptic Links:
• Interactionist perspective (focuses on micro-level interactions like teacher labelling).
• Links to anti-school subcultures (Willis) and self-fulfilling prophecy (Rosenthal and Jacobson).
Participant Observation in Education Context AO1+2
AO1 (Knowledge):
Participant observation involves the researcher becoming part of the school environment, either covertly or overtly, to observe student behaviour and teacher interactions.
AO2 (Application to Education Context):
• Useful for observing classroom dynamics, teacher labelling, and student subcultures.
• Covert observation allows access to anti-school subcultures without affecting behaviour.
Participant Observation in Education Context AO3
mnemonic- “VAPE”
• Validity high
• Access difficult
• Potential for bias
• Ethics
AO3 (Evaluation):
✅ High validity from first-hand experience
✅ Can uncover hidden behaviours (e.g., racism in teacher interactions)
❌ Ethical issues with informed consent (especially covert observation)
❌ Researcher may “go native” and lose objectivity
Strengths in Education Context:
1️⃣ Access to hidden power dynamics, such as teacher bias against working-class students.
2️⃣ Observes peer group interactions and student resistance to authority (e.g., Paul Willis (1977)).
Weaknesses in Education Context:
1️⃣ Gaining access to schools is difficult due to safeguarding laws.
2️⃣ Researcher presence may lead to the Hawthorne Effect (students changing behaviour when observed).
Synoptic Links:
• Marxist perspective on class-based inequalities in education.
• Interactionist studies like Ball’s ‘Beachside Comprehensive’ (1981).
Official Statistics in Education Context AO1+2
AO1 (Knowledge):
Official statistics are government-collected data on exam results, attendance, and exclusions.
AO2 (Application to Education Context):
• Allows analysis of achievement by social class, gender, and ethnicity.
• Shows patterns in exclusion rates and attendance by free school meal status.
Official Statistics in Education Context AO3
mnemonic- “RAIL”
• Reliable
• Accessible
• Ignores qualitative experiences
• Lacks validity
AO3 (Evaluation):
✅ High reliability and representativeness
✅ Allows comparison over time
❌ Lacks depth and personal experience
❌ Schools may manipulate data (e.g., exclusion of ‘problematic’ students before exams)
Strengths in Education Context:
1️⃣ Large-scale data allows patterns in educational inequality to be identified.
2️⃣ Government policies like Free School Meals (FSM) can be evaluated for effectiveness.
Weaknesses in Education Context:
1️⃣ “Dark figure” of unofficial exclusions not recorded.
2️⃣ Data may reflect school performance pressure, not actual student progress.
Synoptic Links:
• Functionalist perspective (e.g., Durkheim’s view on meritocracy).
• New Right focus on school league tables and Ofsted reports.
Structured Interviews in Education Context AO1+2
AO1 (Knowledge):
Structured interviews involve a set list of standardised questions, often conducted face-to-face or over the phone, to gather quantitative data.
AO2 (Application to Education Context):
• Useful for researching teacher attitudes towards streaming or labelling.
• Allows consistency when comparing student experiences across different schools.
Structured Interviews in Education Context AO3
mnemonic- “RUBS”
• Reliable
• Unrepresentative (if response rate is low)
• Biased responses
• Surface-level data
AO3 (Evaluation):
✅ High reliability due to standardised questions
✅ Easier to compare data between schools
❌ Limited depth as responses are restricted
❌ Students may give socially desirable answers due to power dynamics
Strengths in Education Context:
1️⃣ Suitable for large-scale research on educational policies, such as student perceptions of exam pressure.
2️⃣ Reduces interviewer bias, as questions are fixed and standardised.
Weaknesses in Education Context:
1️⃣ Lacks depth when investigating sensitive topics like bullying or racism.
2️⃣ Students may misunderstand complex questions, affecting validity.
Synoptic Links:
• Positivist preference for quantitative data and objectivity.
• Links to Durkheim’s functionalist approach and official statistics on educational achievement.
Questionnaires in Education Context AO1+2
AO1 (Knowledge):
Questionnaires are self-completed surveys that collect either closed or open-ended data.
AO2 (Application to Education Context):
• Suitable for gathering data on bullying experiences, student attitudes towards homework, or teacher expectations of working-class students.
• Anonymity may encourage honest responses from students.
Questionnaires in Education Context AO3
mnemonic- “FLEX”
• Fast and cheap
• Low response rates
• Ethical issues
• X – eXcludes depth
AO3 (Evaluation):
✅ Quick and cost-effective for large samples
✅ Anonymity increases honesty on sensitive issues
❌ Low response rates, especially from disadvantaged students
❌ Misunderstanding of questions can reduce validity
Strengths in Education Context:
1️⃣ Can reach a large sample of students, teachers, or parents.
2️⃣ Anonymity reduces fear of judgement, especially on issues like mental health or discrimination.
Weaknesses in Education Context:
1️⃣ Language barriers for students with English as a second language (ESL).
2️⃣ Limited ability to clarify questions, leading to misinterpretation of key terms.
Synoptic Links:
• Positivist preference for objective, numerical data.
• Links to education policy evaluation, such as student satisfaction surveys.
Experiments in Education Context AO1+2
AO1 (Knowledge):
Experiments can be either laboratory experiments (controlled settings) or field experiments (real-life school environments).
AO2 (Application to Education Context):
• Used to study the effects of teacher expectations on student performance (e.g., Rosenthal and Jacobson’s Pygmalion Effect).
• Field experiments allow observation of student behaviour in natural settings, such as classroom interactions.
Experiments in Education Context AO3
“REAL”
• Reliability
• Ethical concerns
• Artificial setting (in lab experiments)
• Low control in field experiments
AO3 (Evaluation):
✅ High control in lab experiments increases reliability
✅ Field experiments capture real-life behaviour
❌ Ethical concerns, especially with manipulating student performance
❌ Low validity in lab settings due to artificial environment
Strengths in Education Context:
1️⃣ Can identify cause-and-effect relationships, e.g., the impact of teacher labelling on student self-esteem.
2️⃣ Field experiments offer natural behaviour observation, reducing the Hawthorne Effect.
Weaknesses in Education Context:
1️⃣ Ethical issues with deception and lack of informed consent from students.
2️⃣ Hard to control external factors like peer influence or family background.
Synoptic Links:
• Interactionist focus on teacher-student interaction.
• Links to Rosenthal and Jacobson’s (1968) self-fulfilling prophecy study.
Secondary Sources in Education Context (e.g., Official Documents, School Records)
AO1+2
AO1 (Knowledge):
Secondary sources refer to data that has already been collected by others, such as Ofsted reports, school exclusion records, or government policies on free school meals (FSM).
AO2 (Application to Education Context):
• Used to assess the impact of educational policies on working-class achievement.
• Allows sociologists to analyse trends in educational attainment by ethnicity, gender, and social class.
Secondary Sources in Education Context (e.g., Official Documents, School Records)
AO3
“FACTS”
• Fast and cost-effective
• Accessible
• Corrupted by schools
• Trends over time
• Surface-level data
AO3 (Evaluation):
✅ High reliability and access to large-scale data
✅ Allows historical comparisons (e.g., changes in exclusion rates over time)
❌ Data may be manipulated by schools to improve public image (e.g., hiding unofficial exclusions)
❌ Lacks qualitative insight into student experiences
Strengths in Education Context:
1️⃣ Access to official league tables and GCSE results by social class.
2️⃣ Saves time and cost as data is already collected.
Weaknesses in Education Context:
1️⃣ Schools may alter data to meet government targets (e.g., inflating attendance figures).
2️⃣ Lacks validity as it doesn’t reveal hidden factors like racism or teacher labelling.
Synoptic Links:
• Positivist focus on objective data and trends.
• Links to Marxist critiques of the education system, such as Ball’s study on marketisation.
Longitudinal Studies in Education Context AO1+2
AO1 (Knowledge):
Longitudinal studies track the same group of students, teachers, or parents over an extended period to observe changes in educational achievement and attitudes.
AO2 (Application to Education Context):
• Used to assess the impact of material deprivation on educational success (e.g., Douglas (1964) tracked working-class students’ progress over time).
• Can show long-term effects of teacher labelling or streaming.
Longitudinal Studies in Education Context AO3
“LAST”
• Long-term patterns
• Attrition (dropouts)
• Social desirability bias
• Time-consuming
AO3 (Evaluation):
✅ Allows analysis of long-term patterns in educational inequality
✅ High validity due to in-depth tracking of student progress
❌ High dropout rates reduce representativeness
❌ Time-consuming and expensive
Strengths in Education Context:
1️⃣ Tracks working-class student progress over their school career.
2️⃣ Allows observation of changes in teacher expectations and pupil subcultures.
Weaknesses in Education Context:
1️⃣ Sample attrition (participants dropping out) reduces representativeness.
2️⃣ Researchers may influence behaviour over time (Hawthorne Effect).
Synoptic Links:
• Links to Cultural Deprivation Theory (e.g., Douglas’ study on parental involvement).
• Supports interactionist focus on teacher labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy.
Official Statistics vs. Qualitative Data in Education Context AO1+2
AO1 (Knowledge):
• Official statistics are quantitative data collected by the government, e.g., school league tables, GCSE pass rates, and truancy figures.
• Qualitative data involves in-depth, descriptive data, often collected through interviews, observations, or open-ended questionnaires.
AO2 (Application to Education Context):
• Official statistics are useful for identifying achievement gaps between social classes or ethnic groups.
• Qualitative data is essential for understanding student experiences of racism, teacher labelling, or peer subcultures.
Official Statistics vs. Qualitative Data in Education Context AO3
VOGUE”
• Valid
• Objective
• Generalisation
• Understanding experiences
• Ethical concerns
AO3 (Evaluation):
✅ Official Statistics Strengths:
• Large-scale data allows generalisation.
• High reliability as it is collected regularly by the government.
❌ Official Statistics Weaknesses:
• May lack validity due to schools manipulating data to improve rankings.
• Ignores subjective student experiences, e.g., mental health struggles.
✅ Qualitative Data Strengths:
• High validity as it captures in-depth student experiences, e.g., gender stereotyping in classrooms.
• Allows researchers to build rapport with students and teachers, leading to more honest responses.
❌ Qualitative Data Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and difficult to replicate, lowering reliability.
• Risk of researcher bias, especially in unstructured interviews.
Synoptic Links:
• Positivist sociologists (Durkheim, Marxists) prefer official statistics for objectivity.
• Interpretivist sociologists (Becker, Interactionists) prefer qualitative data for understanding meanings and experiences.
PET (Practical, Ethical, and Theoretical) Considerations in Education Research AO1+2
AO1 (Knowledge):
Sociologists must consider practical, ethical, and theoretical factors when researching educational settings, such as schools or colleges.
AO2 (Application to Education Context):
• Researching bullying, teacher labelling, or truancy involves ethical issues, such as protecting vulnerable students.
• Practical factors like gaining access to schools or maintaining teacher cooperation can limit the research.
PET (Practical, Ethical, and Theoretical) Considerations in Education Research AO3
AO3 (Evaluation):
Practical Considerations:
✅ Schools provide access to large, captive samples (students and teachers).
✅ Official records (e.g., attendance data) are readily available.
❌ Gatekeeping by headteachers can restrict access to sensitive areas (e.g., exclusion policies).
❌ Limited student attention span affects the success of interviews or questionnaires.
Ethical Considerations:
✅ Researchers can protect student anonymity and gain parental consent.
✅ Can be used to challenge inequality (e.g., racism or sexism in schools).
❌ Informed consent is difficult with younger students.
❌ Researching sensitive issues like bullying may cause psychological harm.
Theoretical Considerations:
✅ Positivists favour quantitative methods (e.g., official statistics on exam performance).
✅ Interpretivists prefer qualitative methods (e.g., unstructured interviews on teacher expectations).
❌ Risk of Hawthorne Effect, where students or teachers change their behaviour when observed.
❌ Low representativeness, especially in small case studies of schools.
Synoptic Links:
• Ethical considerations link to feminist research, which prioritises the protection of vulnerable groups (e.g., working-class girls).
• Practical limitations are highlighted in Paul Willis’ study on working-class lads, which took over a year to complete.
Researching Pupils in Education Context AO1+2
AO1 (Knowledge):
Pupils are often the main target group in education research, such as investigating academic achievement, truancy, or peer subcultures.
AO2 (Application to Education Context):
• Used to study working-class underachievement (e.g., Paul Willis’ study on anti-school subcultures).
• Investigates the impact of teacher labelling on student self-esteem (e.g., Rosenthal and Jacobson’s Pygmalion Effect).
Researching Pupils in Education Context AO3
🎯 Mnemonic to Remember Issues When Researching Pupils:
“PEP TALK”
• Power imbalance
• Ethical concerns
• Peer pressure
• Truthful responses
• Access to schools
• Language barriers
• Knowledge gaps (pupils may lack understanding of sociological concepts)
✅ Strengths:
• Pupils provide first-hand insight into student experience.
• Methods like unstructured interviews allow pupils to open up about sensitive issues (e.g., bullying or racism).
❌ Weaknesses:
• Power imbalance between adult researchers and pupils affects honesty.
• Peer pressure can influence pupil responses, especially in group settings.
• Ethical issues around informed consent and protecting vulnerable young participants.
Synoptic Links:
• Links to Interactionist studies on pupil labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy.
• Feminist research highlights gender inequalities in classroom experiences (e.g., Sue Sharpe’s study on girls’ changing ambitions).
Researching Teachers in Education Context AO1+2
AO1 (Knowledge):
Teachers are often studied to understand classroom practices, labelling, and curriculum delivery.
AO2 (Application to Education Context):
• Investigates teacher expectations and labelling (e.g., Becker’s ideal pupil study).
• Examines teacher bias towards ethnic minorities (e.g., Wright’s study on racism in primary schools).
Researching Teachers in Education Context AO3
🎯 Mnemonic to Remember Issues When Researching Teachers:
“FELT”
• Fear of being judged
• Ethical concerns
• Limited access
• Time constraints
✅ Strengths:
• Teachers are more likely to understand sociological research aims, improving validity.
• Access to insider knowledge on school policies and student behaviour.
❌ Weaknesses:
• Social desirability bias, as teachers may give politically correct answers to protect their reputation.
• Gatekeeping by headteachers may limit access to controversial issues, such as exclusions or racism.
Synoptic Links:
• Links to Marxist critique of teacher labelling and streaming (e.g., Ball’s study on banding).
• Supports Interactionist research on classroom interaction (e.g., Becker’s ideal pupil).
Researching Parents in Education Context AO1+2
AO1 (Knowledge):
Parents are studied to understand cultural capital, parental attitudes towards education, and class-based inequalities.
AO2 (Application to Education Context):
• Used in Sociologists like Ball’s study on middle-class parent involvement in school choice.
• Investigates working-class parental attitudes towards education (e.g., Douglas (1964)).
Researching Parents in Education Context AO3
🎯 Mnemonic to Remember Issues When Researching Parents:
“CLASS”
• Cultural differences
• Language barriers
• Access issues
• Social desirability bias
• Sensitive topics (e.g., poverty, racism)
AO3 (Evaluation):
✅ Strengths:
• Parents provide insight into home environment and support with homework.
• Useful for comparing middle-class vs. working-class parental involvement.
❌ Weaknesses:
• Low response rates, especially from working-class parents who may feel judged.
• Language barriers for ethnic minority parents.
Synoptic Links:
• Links to Cultural Capital Theory (Bourdieu).
• Supports Material Deprivation Theory (e.g., lack of resources for private tutoring).
Methods in Context 20-Marker Exam Technique
🎯 What the Exam Wants:
• AO1: Knowledge of the research method (e.g., interviews, questionnaires).
• AO2: Application to the education context (e.g., researching truancy, racism, or teacher labelling).
• AO3: Strengths and weaknesses in the specific school setting (not general strengths of the method).
✅ Structure to Follow (PEEL):
Point - State the research method (e.g., unstructured interviews).
Explain - Why this method is useful in schools (e.g., builds rapport with students).
Evaluate - Limitations (e.g., power imbalance between researcher and pupil).
Link to a sociological study (e.g., Willis, Rosenthal & Jacobson).
Methods in Context 20-Marker Exam Technique example
🌟 Example 20-Marker Plan: How would a sociologist use unstructured interviews to research teacher labelling?
1️⃣ Practical Factors
• Builds rapport with students to gain insight into labelling.
• ❌ Weakness: Time-consuming and risk of interviewer bias.
2️⃣ Ethical Factors
• Anonymity protects pupils from harm.
• ❌ Weakness: Pupils may feel pressured to give desirable answers.
3️⃣ Theoretical Factors
• High validity (Interpretivist view).
• ❌ Low reliability and hard to replicate.
