methods and techniques

Question 1

Scientific method

Answer 1

Observation  hypothesis  testable prediction  experiment  data analysis  interpreting results.

Question 2

Good Hypothesis

Answer 2

• Is connected to prior research;
• Is testable, observable/measurable and falsifiable;
• Is a positive statement;
• Is as parsimonious as possible

Question 3

Pseudoscience

Answer 3

is some sort of ‘fake science’ often based on non-falsifiable hypotheses, used to persuade rather than to demonstrate factual knowledge

Question 4

Science

Answer 4

consists of information obtained through observation/research. It requires theories and hypotheses to be flexible; nothing is accepted as an absolute truth.

Question 5

Basic research

Answer 5

is conducted to investigate issues relevant to the confirmation or disconfirmation of theories and hypotheses through empirical data

Question 6

Applied research

Answer 6

is investigating something that can be directly applied to a real life situation.

Question 7

Confirmation bias

Answer 7

: people have a tendency to look for information that confirms their beliefs and ignore/scrutinize information that disproves them

Question 8

Cialdini’s two step model of research

Answer 8

1. Identifying ‘prey’ (phenomenon you want to study)

2. ‘trapping’ (identifying factors crucial to explaining phenomenon)

Question 9

Protoscience:

Answer 9

science ‘at the edge of current scientific knowledge’; researching unconfirmed phenomena.

Question 10

Criteria of “true science”:

Answer 10

• Peer reviewed
• Experiments are reported precisely
• Based on evidence and research findings

Question 11

Scientific method:

Answer 11

1. Observation
2. Develop idea/hypothesis
3. Experimenting
4. New questions for further research

Question 12

Theory

Answer 12

a plausible or scientifically acceptable, well substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world

Question 13

Functions of theories:

Answer 13

• Understanding
• Making predictions
• Organising and interpreting research results
• Generating research/new questions

Question 14

Strategies for testing theories:

Answer 14

• Confirmational strategy: testing a prediction implied by the theory
• Disconfirmational strategy: if the theory is true, then X cannot be true  test for X.

Question 15

Kuhn’s effect

Answer 15

most theories will continue getting support even after disconfirming evidence has been found, simply because of the amount of effort that went into it people cling to the concept.

Question 16

Hypothesis

Answer 16

a tentative explanation for an observation or phenomenon that can be tested by further investigation.

Question 17

Mechanistic explanation:

Answer 17

describes a mechanism – cause and effect, or ‘how does it work?

Question 18

Functional explanation:

Answer 18

describes an attribute and its function – ‘why does this attribute exist’
One should aim for mechanistic explanations; the ‘how’ usually tells you the ‘why’

Question 19

Types of (non-scientific) explanation:

Answer 19

• Belief-based explanation
• Commonsense explanation
• Pseudoexplanation (circular logic

Question 20

Deception

Answer 20

Reasons for deception: creating a rare situation instead of having to wait for it to happen naturally; some things can only be observed when you catch people off guard.
Cost-benefit analysis: the benefits of the research have to outweigh the costs for it to be worth it

Question 21

Social contract theory

Answer 21

one party willingly gives up part of their human rights in favour of the more powerful other party.

Question 22

Ethnic codes for deception

Answer 22

• It has to be necessary;
• Participants are informed about the possibility of being deceived;
• Potential vulnerabilities of subjects are taken into account;
• Researchers don’t use practices that they wouldn’t be willing to go through themselves;
• Participants act in good faith

Question 23

Ethnic codes for deception solution

Answer 23

Solutions:
• Role playing instead of deception
• Obtaining prior consent to be deceived
• Full debriefing
A full debriefing ideally includes:
1. A full disclosure of the purpose of the experiment;
2. Description of the deception and an explanation of why it was necessary;
3. Discussion of potential perseverance of effects of the manipulation;
4. Convincing participants of the importance of the experiment.
Provide evidence to make sure the participants believe you. Give them the opportunity to be a confederate in future research, for example.

Question 24

Ethics

Answer 24

Informed consent: a participant should be sufficiently informed about the experiment and agree to participate only then. They should also be able to withdraw at any time

Question 25

Declaration of Helsinki

Answer 25

researchers are responsible to protect their subjects’ health, welfare and dignity.

Question 26

Belmont report: 3 principles

Answer 26

1. Respect for persons (people get to make their own decisions; voluntary entry) 2. Beneficience (minimize harm; maximize benefits) 3. Justice (researcher and subject share costs and benefits)

Question 27

Research on internet groups:

Answer 27

* Learn and respect the group’s rules and norms * Edit collected data to have the group remain anonymous * Use multiple groups to protect privacy

Question 28

Fraud

Answer 28

* Data fabrication * Falsification * Plagiarism

Question 29

How to prevent fraud

Answer 29

* Strengthen culture of integrity; * Require multiple authors to verify the data; * Peer review system; * Independent researcher to review raw data; * Remove the bias against null results.