Methodology: Observations

Question 1

Define ‘observation’.

Answer 1

The close and detailed observation of a subject’s behaviour in a particular environment whereby variables are not manipulated.

Question 2

Give an example of quantitative data gathered from an observation.

Answer 2

Tally counts of certain behaviours being shown.

Question 3

Give an example of qualitative data gathered from an observation.

Answer 3

• Observer narratives of notes on the subject’s behaviour

- Audio or video recordings to look back on and analyse more closely

Question 4

List the two types of observation sampling.

Answer 4

1) Event

2) Time

Question 5

Describe event sampling.

Answer 5

The observer records each event that meets a predetermined list of behaviours.

Question 6

Give an example of event sampling.

Answer 6

Tallying every time the subject scratches their head.

Question 7

Evaluate 2 strengths of event sampling.

Answer 7

1) High reliability due to providing quantitative data that can be easily compared when reproduced
2) High validity due to there being less chance of a behaviour that is studied being missed

Question 8

Evaluate 2 weaknesses of event sampling.

Answer 8

1) Lowe reliability if there are too many variables to tally the researcher may gather inconsistent results in how many observed and how many there actually were
2) Low validity in operationalising each predetermined behaviour

Question 9

Describe time sampling.

Answer 9

The researcher decides on a time interval and records what behaviour is occurring at each interval that can provide quantitative data for predetermined behaviours or quantitative through a narrative at these times.

Question 10

Give an example of time sampling.

Answer 10

Describing the behaviour of a child playing with a toy every 5 seconds.

Question 11

Evaluate 2 strengths of time sampling.

Answer 11

1) High reliability due to the standardisation of time intervals allowing replication
2) Most appropriate for applications on frequency of certain behaviours

Question 12

Evaluate 2 weaknesses of time sampling.

Answer 12

1) Low validity as some behaviours that are important to be studied may be missed during each time interval
2) Not appropriate in a setting with a high concentration of people whereby there may be too many people to focus on what they’re doing at any one time

Question 13

Identify the 2 observational methods.

Answer 13

1) Structured

2) Unstructured

Question 14

Describe structured observations.

Answer 14

• They can occur in a natural or lab setting
• The focus of the observation is predetermined beforehand, providing quantitative data
• These smaller segments of info can be formed into variables
• The researcher often intervenes in order to cause an event so that they can be recorded more easily
• Highly structured involves the researchers decide on precise ways to observe the different categories
• Semi-structured involves the researcher starting with an agenda of what will be observed and how but collecting the data is done less systematically
• Can look at facts, events, behaviours, verbal and non-verbal behvaiour

Question 15

Evaluate 2 strengths of structured observations.

Answer 15

1) High reliability due to gathering quantitative data in the form of numbers that can be compared easily
2) High reliability due to having control over EVs with a standardised procedure meaning it can be replicated easily to test for consistency

Question 16

Evaluate 2 weaknesses of structured observations.

Answer 16

1) Low ecological validity due to the environment being controlled, artificial and so unnatural to the ppt therefore their behaviour may not reflect real life
2) Low validity due to observer bias in the researcher looking for behaviours they expect to see that may in fact not be there

Question 17

Describe naturalistic observations.

Answer 17

• This involves observing subjects in their natural environment
• This is used in comparison to structured observations when a controlled environment would severely affect the behaviour being studied
• It does not involve any intervention and only looks at when the behaviours occur in a natural setting
• Limited manipulation on variables due to lack of intervention

Question 18

Evaluate 2 strengths of naturalistic observations.

Answer 18

1) High ecological validity due to occurring in a setting natural to the ppts and so their behaviour is more likely to be natural and without DCs as they will be unaware
2) High ethics due to often involving researching events and behaviours that would be unethical to manipulate in a lab setting therefore it is better than structured

Question 19

Evaluate 2 weaknesses of naturalistic observations.

Answer 19

1) Low reliability due to being a natural environment in which the researcher can’t manipulate variables therefore replication is limited so comparisons are hard
2) Low validity due to behaviours potentially being missed as there are no controls or interventions on what behaviours may occur when

Question 20

Identify the 4 observational designs.

Answer 20

1) Overt
2) Covert
3) Participant
4) Non-participant

Question 21

Describe overt observations.

Answer 21

The researcher is open about their intentions to observe subjects behaviours.

Question 22

Evaluate 2 strengths of overt observations.

Answer 22

1) High validity due to it being easier to record data at the point of it happening as the ppts know they are being watched therefore less likely to miss things
2) High ethics due to ppts being aware they’re being observed and so have given informed consent with the knowledge of the right to withdraw

Question 23

Evaluate 2 weaknesses of overt observations.

Answer 23

1) Low validity due to ppts being aware they are being watched therefore they may change their behaviour to show demand characteristics of what they think the researcher wants to see
2) Low validity with observer bias in seeing what they want/expect to see

Question 24

Describe covert observations.

Answer 24

• Subjects of the observation do not know they are being studied
• Conducted in public settings or closed whereby the researcher is a member or poses as one

Question 25

Evaluate 2 strengths of covert observations.

Answer 25

1) High ecological validity due to ppts being unaware they are being studied therefore would not show demand characteristics so behaviour is natural
2) High validity due to allowing the researchers to study behaviours that they may not be able to study if the ppts were aware of the observation

Question 26

Evaluate 2 weaknesses of covert observations.

Answer 26

1) Low reliability due to it being hard for the researcher to note every behaviour/event at the time of its occurrence as it may draw attention to them therefore there may be retrospective inconsistencies
2) Ethical issues due to not making the ppts aware they are being observed therefore not gaining informed consent from them and compromising their right to withdraw

Question 27

Describe participant observations.

Answer 27

• The researcher is involved the with setting and activities that are being observed
• The researcher may become the object of which the reaction of subjects is studied or a bystander to an event with other bystanders

Question 28

Evaluate 2 strengths of participant observations.

Answer 28

1) High generalisability of groups who may be hidden or inaccessible via overt observations therefore can gather inside data to represent that group
2) High validity due to the researcher being involved in the events and so gathering inside, detailed information

Question 29

Evaluate 2 weaknesses of participant observations.

Answer 29

1) Low validity due to the researcher being a part of the situation therefore may influence the events and bias it towards things that they want to have happen
2) Ethical issues due to often involving deceiving the ppts of the researcher’s true intentions and identity therefore not gaining informed consent and potentially causing psychological distress

Question 30

Describe non-participant observations.

Answer 30

• The observer doesn’t participate in the events or activities being studied themselves
• In extreme cases the researcher has no interaction with the ppts at all but instead watches recordings or looking through one-way mirrors

Question 31

Evaluate 2 strengths of non-participant observations.

Answer 31

1) High reliability due to it being easier to record data as it occurs when not involved in the events therefore
2) High validity due to the researchers not being involved with the events therefore would not contaminate the data by influencing situations

Question 32

Evaluate 2 weaknesses of non-participant observations.

Answer 32

1) Low application due to not being able to observe certain behaviour that may only occur in secret
2) Low validity due to being less able to gather detailed information on the subjects being observed as they are outside the events