Metacognition Flashcards
Memory strategies
Performing intentional memories activities to help encode and retrieve information
What is the first step to processing
Paying attention
What type of attention is best, divided or focused
Focused, choose what to pay attention too
Levels of processing
Generally, the idea that you will recall something better if you process it deep instead of shallowly
What two factors contribute to deep processing
Elaborateness and Distinctiveness
Elaboration
Concentrate on the specific meaning of a particular concept and relate this concept to prior knowledge/interconnected concepts you have already mastered
What is the opposite of Elaboration, how effective is it?
Rehearsal or maintenance, it is a waste of time
According to Einstein and McDaniel what is the best way to learn and remember complex material
To make it a why question because you have to process deeply
How did students in a psychology class learn more about personality theories
They kept a journal to analyze friends and other people in a more complex and meaningful fashion - Elaborated
Distinctiveness
One memory trace should be different from all other memory traces
What type of activity requires distinctiveness
Remembering someone’s name
Self-referencing
Better than deep processing, when you enhance LTM by relating material to your own experiences
Encoding specificity
Recall is often better if the context at the time of encoding matches the context at the time when your retrieval will be tested
Encoding specificity can be ___ and ____
Internal and external, How you feel and what you see
External Encoding Specificity
Classroom, chair you sit in, wha you see, Can be inconsistent
Internal Encoding Specificity
State of mind, your body when you study, laziness vs heart rate stressed
Foresight bias (Judgment of learning)
Overconfidence, we are bad at judging how well we will do on a test in the future
Who is usually most overconfident on a test
Botti performers, estimate too high
What is the reason for overconfidence (foresight bias)
People judge their learning too close to studying
T/F Distributing your learning is a good way to find out what you do and do not remember
True, once and done isn’t good enough
Total-time hypothesis
The amount of time you spend on something equals how well you will know it
How does the TTH fair
Generally true, but rereading or simple repetition is not good enough
What affects the TTH effectiveness
How the person spends the time, deep processing is a better use of time than reading passively
Retrieval-Practice effect
Recalling information from memory, the more you do it the better - increasing interval
Distributed-Practice effect (Spaced learning)
You will remember more material if you spread your learning trials over time
Massed learning
Cram by learning all the material at once
T/F Distributed-Practive effect is effective for both recall and recognition tasks
True
Desirable difficulties
Learning situation that is somewhat challenging, but not to difficult
What is the essence of desirable difficulties
You need to leave time between reputations or it will become too easy to remember an answer
What does desirable difficulties reduce
Overconfidence
What is the best timing for repetition using desirable difficulty
One day in between
Testing effect
Taking a test is an excellent way to boost your LT recall for academic material
The testing effect is better than repeated studying, even without ______
Feedback
Explain the findings of the testing effect study
Students who simply reviews did better when they had a test 5 minutes after the info, but students who took a test with no feedback did better on the real test when it was 2 days or a week later
What else did students who tested instead of extra studying show as well
Greater organization
Mnemonics
Use of intentional mental strategies designed to improve your memory
Mental imagery
Mentally represent objects, actions, or ideas that are not physically present
What did the Bower & Winzenz study of mental imagery show
People were better at remembering a paired word if they had a vivid visual image of the two words interacting
Interacting visual memory is especially helpful when an image is _____
Bizarre
Keyword method - helpful for learning another language
Identify an english word that sounds similar to the new word you want to learn and create an image that links key words with the meaning of the new word
Method of loci
Memory palace - you use the image of a well known physical space and tag this to parts of the space - good for remembering things in a specific order
Organization of a mnemonic
Try to bring systematic order to the material you want to learn
What are the four methods of organization
Chunking, Hierarchy, First-letter technique, Narrative technique
Chunking
People recall more material when it is grouped in meaningful, familiar units
Hierarchy
System in which items are arranged in a series of class, from most general to most specific
Explain the findings of the hierarchy study
People remembered more words when they were presented in a upside down tree form instead of just randomly placed
What is an example of a hierarchy
An outline, that uses subtitles
First letter technique
Use the first letter of each word you want to remember to make a word or sentence you can use to jog your memory
What are the two types of first letter technique
Acronym and Acrostic
What is the Acronym method
Use the first letter of each word to make another word RICE
What is the Acrostic method
Use the first letters of each word to make a new sentence - good for knowing order
Narrative method
To make a story that links a series of words together
Narrative method is especially helpful for people with ____ ___
Memory impairment
The narrative must be what to be effective
Easily generate, and reliable during learning and recall
Retrospective memory
Remembering information that you acquired in the past
Prospective memory
Remembering that you need to do something in the future
What are the two components of prospective-memory tasks
- Establish the you want to accomplish a particular task at a set time in the future2. At the future time, fulfil original intentions
Sometimes, the primary challenge of prospective memory is to remember the actual ______ of the action
Content, what need to be done
Prospective memory focuses on ____, while retrospective memory concentrates on ___ ___
Action, remembering information
What part of the brain do both retrospective and prospective memory play a role
Regions of the frontal lobe
What is the most common prospective memory mistake
Forgetting to add the attachment on an email
Prospective-memory tasks represent a ______-attention situation
Divided
T/F Absentminded behaviour is especially likely when prospective-memory tasks require you to disrupt customary activity
True, long-standing habits dominate fragile prospective memory tasks
What three things make absent minded behaviour more likely
Being preoccupied, distracted and/or feeling time pressure
How can you help solidify a prospective memory
Creating a strong connections between the components you want to connect - mental imagery
Another problem with prospective memory is the people are often _____ that they will remember the task
Overconfident
What are especially helpful in prospective-memory tasks
External memory aids
External memory aids
Any device external to you that facilities your memory in some way
What is important about external memory aids
The placement - put your keys in the fridge to avoid forgetting your lunch
Metacognition
Knowledge and control of you cognitive processes
Why is metacognition important
your knowledge about your cognitive processes can guide you in selecting strategies to improve your future connive performance
Self-knowledge
What people belief about themselves, metacognition belongs to this issue
What are the three things we know from prior chapters about metacognition
We have limited consciousness of our higher processing, CE is needed to planning where you will spend your time studying and some people have difficulty on source monitoring tasks
Metamemory
People’s knowledge, monitoring, and control of their memory
Metamemory is important for when you want to ___ your memory
Improve
Is you metamemory always accurate in predicting your memory performance
No
People tend to be ____ when asked to predict their total score on a memory task, but ____ when asked to predict which individual items they will remember or forget
Overconfident, accurate
How can students be over confident when they are studying
They think they know an answer because they are reading the definition - no difficulty or testing
When are people most accurate at making a prediction about memory estimates - immediately after learning or after a delay
After a delay
Delayed judgements are more likely to be accurate because they assess ___-____ ___
Long-term memory
Why is immediate judgement not a a good representation
Because you are assessing working memory, which is not what will be used during the recall on an examination
According to Maki and her colleagues students are more confident about their answers on what type of test format
Multiple choice
What three factors influence (positively) a student’s metamemory accuracy
1) Assessing the accuracy of an individual question2) Assessing accuracy after a delay between studying3) Assessing accuracy on multiple choice questions
What is an important cognitive characteristic of people who have ADHD
They have trouble paying attention at school, work, and during other activities i.e. you need attention for solid memories
Calibration
Measures people’s accuracy in estimating their actual performance
T/F People with ADHD can make highly accurate judgments about an an item pair recall task *these findings are not representative
True, they were comparable with people who did not have ADHD
For which condition were both ADHD and non-ADHD people more calibrate
When they used delayed judgment compared to immediate
T/F All memory strategies are not created equal
True, some are more effective than other i.e. reputation vs keyword technique
What two techniques do may students believe will be helpful for memory, but actually show no benefit
Seeing words printed in large font instead of small, and speaking words out at a loud volume, rather than quietly
When people have adequate time to study, how do they allocate their time
Allocating somewhat more time for the items they believe will be difficult to master
Son and Metcalfe found what about study habits when student had limited time, was this a good idea
Students tended to spend more time uneasier material, yes, they are more likely to master more
T/F We regulate the regulation of our study strategies
True, depending on the task at hand
Tip of the tongue effect
Your subjective experience of knowing a target word for which you are searching, yet you cannot recall it right now
T/F Tip of the tongue effect is involuntary
True
Feeling of knowing effect
The subjective experience of knowing some information, but you cannot recall it right now
T/F The feeling of knowing effect is conscious
True, careful assessment
What area of the brain houses both these effects
Frontal lobe, also where metacognitive tasks are carried out
In the tip of the tongue study people could not identify the word, but they could…
Give similar-sounding words
Why is the tip of the tongue related to metacognition
People know they know they word - they have to be familiar with their own memory
What type of person is more likely to have tip of the tongue effect, why
Bilingual people, because they have a greater total number of separate words in their semantic memory
T/F TOTT can be found in other languages as well
True, Italians can even retrieve the grammatical gender of a word as well as first letter and number of syllables
Tip of the finger effect
Experienced by the deaf community, the subjective experience of knowing the target sign, but the sign being temporarily inaccessible
Embodied cogntion
A perspective that emphasizes how our abstract thoughts are often expressed by our motor behaviour - facial expression and movements during TOTT
How is the feeling of knowing different form TOTT
You may not feel like you know the word, but you could definitely recognize it if a number of options were providedTOTT is often more extreme and irritating
Which side of the brain is more associated with each effect
TOTT - right prefrontalFeeling of knowing - left prefrontal
Metacomprehension
Your thoughts about language comprehension *most research on reading than spoken language
Explain the connection between metacognition, metamemory and metacomprehension
Metacognition contains both metamemory and metacomprehension
How accurate are college student of their metacomprehension skills
Not very
T/F Readers are not very accurate in estimating whether they have understood the material they have just read
True
What irrelevant features convinced students to be more confident about what they had just read
When paragraphs were accompanied by pictures
When people are skilled at metacognition, they usually receive ____ scores on reading comprehension
Higher
What method can college students use to improve their metacomprehension
Read a passage, wait a few minutes, then try to explain the passage to yourself without looking at the written passage
What are the differences between good readers and bad
Good readers make connections with what they have read, make mental images and summarize material in their own words
What is a simple way for college student to improve their metacomprehension
Reading the material a second time
What is the generation effect
Memory improves when you generate your own notes instead of just reading them - provides deep processing that is not verbatim wiring
What is the production effect
We remember things better that are relatively distinct or start out - when we sing only certain things that are hard to remember
What is transfer appropriate processing
How you study for a test you should match how you will be tested - right processing ex) mc test vs writing an essay
