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KNES 323 Kacper > Metabolism > Flashcards

Metabolism Flashcards

1
Q

Macromolecules

A

The large molecules necessary for life that are built from smaller organic molecules.

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2
Q

4 macromolecules

A

Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids

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3
Q

Macromolecules structure

A

These macromolecules are often complex in nature but really are just polymers
* Long molecules made up of similar building blocks of smaller molecules
* Most of these polymers can be broken
down relatively easily through hydrolysis
(Carbohydrates, Proteins and Nucleic
Acids)
* Lipids are broken down by lipolysis

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4
Q

carbohydrates

A
  • Are saccharides
  • They are all built on a C(H2 O)n formula which represents a carbon backbone is attached to a 2:1 hydrogen:oxygen ratio
  • This enables a ton of different configurations that are easy to build and break-a-part.
  • These can be used as fuel sources or converted to other organic molecules
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5
Q

Types of carbohydrates

A
  • Monosaccharides (1 sugar)
  • Disaccharides (2 sugars)
  • Polysaccharides (many sugars)
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6
Q

Monosaccharides

A
  • These are the simplest sugars and can not be broken down by hydrolysis into smaller carbohydrate molecules
  • They can readily be used as fuel sources in the body
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7
Q

Monosaccharides types

A

Glucose, Fructose and Galactose all have the same formula (C6 H 12 O6 ) are regarded as dietary monosaccharides since they are readily absorbed by the small intestines.

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8
Q

Glucose

A

An important source of energy. During cellular respiration, energy is released from glucose and that energy is used to help make adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

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9
Q

fructose

A

A naturally occurring sugar often found in fruits, fruit juices, honey and some vegetables. It is often used in the body to aid in glycolysis and helps replenish liver glycogen stores

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10
Q

Ribose

A
  • (C5 H10 O5)
  • Is the pentose sugar component of the nucleotides of RNA
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11
Q

Deoxyribose

A
  • (C5 H10 O4)
  • The sugar component of the nucleotides of DNA
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12
Q

Disaccharides

A

These form when two monosaccharides are joined together
* One of the monosaccharides is always glucose

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13
Q

Disaccharide types:

A

Sucrose, lactose, Maltose

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14
Q

Sucrose

A
  • Most common dietary disaccharide and can make up to 25% of the calories
    consumed in the USA
  • Occurs naturally and is in most foods that contain carbohydrates
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15
Q

lactose

A
  • Only natural source is from milk and milk sugar products
  • This is not found in plants
  • Is the least sweet of the three main dietary disaccharides
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16
Q

Maltose

A
  • Made from two glucose molecules
  • Found in beer, breakfast cereals, and germinating seeds
  • Only contributes a small amount to the dietary carbohydrate consumption totals
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17
Q

Polysaccharides

A

A long chain of monosaccharides is known as a polysaccharide (“many”)
* The chain may be branched or unbranched, and it may contain different types of monosaccharides.

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18
Q

Polysaccharides Types

A

Starch, glycogen, cellulose and chitin

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19
Q

Starch

A

Is the storage form of carbohydrates within plants.

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20
Q

Starch two main forms:

A
  • Amylose: long, straight chains that are twisted to form helical coils (slow to
    breakdown)
  • Amylopectin: highly branched glucose chains (fast to breakdown)
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21
Q

Glycogen

A
  • Is the storage form of carbohydrates within animals (Muscle and Liver)
  • Highly branched (similar to amylopectin and is fast to breakdown)
  • Converted to glucose in the body via glycogenolysis
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22
Q

cellulose

A
  • Most abundant naturally occurring polysaccharide
  • Found in plant walls and provides the structural support to the cell
  • Made of long-straight chains which provide plant cells with their rigidity
  • Very hard to breakdown
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23
Q

Chitin

A
  • Found in the exoskeleton of arthropods and provides the structural support to
    the cell
  • Similar to cellulose it is made of long-
    straight chains which provide rigidity to
    the shells (Also in fungal cell walls)
  • Can be made into flexible surgical thread that decomposes over time
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24
Q

Proteins

A

Perform essential functions throughout our systems. These long chains of amino acids are critically important.

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25
Q

Proteins importance

A
  • Catalyzing chemical reactions
  • Synthesizing and repairing DNA
  • Transporting materials across the cell
  • Receiving and sending chemical signals
  • Responding to stimuli
  • Providing structural suppor
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26
Q

Protein structure

A

Proteins are made from polymers of specific amino acid sequences that form polypeptide chains
* There are 20 different amino acids required by the body and these are used to make up all of our proteins
* In total there are about 50,000 different proteins in the human body! (all with unique functions)

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27
Q

Protein shape

A
  • The function of each protein will depend on how each protein is shaped.
  • As such, any small change to the form of a protein can greatly alter it’s function and result in the protein becoming dysfunctional (sickle cell anemia)
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28
Q

Enzymes

A

Are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions, which otherwise would not take place.

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29
Q

Why are enzymes essential

A
  • Enzymes are essential for chemical processes like digestion and cellular
    metabolism.
  • Without enzymes, most physiological processes would proceed so slowly (or not at all) that life could not exist.
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30
Q

Two types of enzymes

A

Anabolic and catabolic enzymes

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31
Q

Anabolic enzymes

A

enzymes that build more complex molecules from their substrate

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32
Q

Catabolic

A

enzymes that break down their substrate

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33
Q

Enzymes in digestion

A

breaking larger food molecules down into subunits small enough to diffuse through a
cell membrane and to be used by the cell (Catabolic Enzymes)
Enzymes that help: Amylase, pepsin, lipase, trypsin

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34
Q

Amylase

A

digestion carbohydrates in the mouth and small intestine

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35
Q

Pepsin

A

digestion of proteins in the stomach

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36
Q

Lipase

A

emulsify fats in the small intestine

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37
Q

Trypsin

A

further digestion of proteins in the small intestine

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38
Q

Hormones

A

are often proteins that are secreted by endocrine cells and act to control or regulate specific physiological processes:
* Growth
* Development
* Metabolism
* Reproduction

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39
Q

Insulin

A

A protein hormone that helps to regulate blood glucose levels

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40
Q

Other proteins

A
  • Act as receptors to detect the concentrations of chemicals and send signals to respond.
  • Some types of hormones, such as estrogen and testosterone, are lipid steroids, not proteins
41
Q

Lipids

A
  • Are the fats, oils, waxes and other similar compounds in out bodies
  • Lipids are mainly used in the body for energy storage and structure
42
Q

Lipids structure

A
  • They are mainly made from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (but in very different ratios than carbohydrates)
  • The vast majority of lipids are non-polar, they do not dissolve in water (or blood which is ~90% water)
  • Instead they are transported via lipoproteins
43
Q

Lipid, three main types

A
  • Fats
  • Phospholipid
  • Steroids
44
Q

Fats

A
  • Fats are constructed from a single glycerol molecule and three fatty acids
45
Q

Saturated fatty acids

A
  • have the maximal number of hydrogen atoms that are possible for the structure
  • Therefore, no double bonds are present
  • Tend to form solids at room temperature (more rigid structures)
46
Q

Unsaturated fatty acids

A
  • have one or more double bonds present
  • Usually of plant origin and contain cis fatty acids
  • Tend to form liquids at room temperature (less rigid structures)
47
Q

Phospholipid

A
  • Are major components of the plasma membrane, the outermost layer of animal cells
48
Q

Phospholipid structure

A
  • Like fats, they are composed of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone.
  • Unlike fats, which have three fatty acids, phospholipids have two fatty acids and a
    phosphate group that help form a diacylglycerol.
  • The cell membrane consists of two adjacent layers of phospholipids, which form a bilayer.
49
Q

Phospholipid- Phosphate group

A

Is negatively charged, making the head polar and hydrophilic, or “water loving”

50
Q

Phospholipid- fatty acid tails

A

Are uncharged, non polar, and hydrophobic, or “water fearing”

51
Q

Phospholipid bilayer

A
  • Acts as a semipermeable membrane
  • Only lipophilic solutes can easily pass the bilayer.
  • As a result, there are two distinct aqueous compartments on each side of the membrane.
  • This separation is essential for many biological functions, including cell communication and metabolism.
52
Q

Steroids

A
  • Play roles in reproduction, absorption, metabolism regulation, and brain activity
  • Unlike phospholipids and fats, steroids have a fused ring structure.
  • All steroids have four linked carbon rings
  • Although they do not resemble the other lipids, they are grouped with them because they are also hydrophobic and insoluble in water.
53
Q

Cholesterol

A
  • The most common steroid and is mainly synthesized in the liver; it is the precursor to:
  • Vitamin D
  • Steroid hormones like estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone
  • Plays a role in synthesizing aldosterone, which is used for osmoregulation
  • Also contributes to the formation of cortisol, which plays a role in metabolism.
54
Q

Nucleic acid

A

Two main types: DNA and RNA

55
Q

DNA

A
  • the genetic material found in all living organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals.
  • Deoxyribose
  • Deoxyribonucleic acid
  • Nucleotide: phosphate, sugar and base
  • Double stranded
  • Bases: guanine, cytosine, adenine, thymine
  • A double bond T, C triple bond G
  • Long strands
56
Q

RNA

A
  • mostly involved in protein synthesis
  • Ribose
  • Ribonucleic acid
  • Nucleotides: phosphate, sugar and base
  • Single stranded
  • Bases: guanine, cytosine, adenine, uracil
  • A double bond U, C triple bond G
  • Short strands
  • Messenger RNA
  • Ribosomal RNA
  • Transfer RNA
57
Q

Energy balance

A

In biological terms, energy balance can be represented by the following equation:

Energy intake = Internal heat produced
+ External work
+ Internal work
+ Energy storage

58
Q

Law of thermodynamics

A

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, therefore there is balance between energy input and output

59
Q

Energy input

A
  • Energy in ingested food
  • Cells capture portion in high-energy bonds of ATP
  • Energy output
60
Q

Energy output

A
  • External work
    – Energy expended when skeletal muscles are contracted to move external objects or to move body in relation to the environment
  • Energy from nutrients that is not used to perform work
    – Transformed into thermal energy or heat
  • Only about 25 percent of chemical energy in food is harnessed to do biological work.
  • Remainder is converted to heat (a lot is used to maintain body temperatures)
61
Q

Energy storage

A
  • Internal work
    – All other forms of biological energy expenditure that do not accomplish mechanical work outside the body
  • Skeletal muscle activity used for purposes other than external work (postural
    maintenance contractions, shivering)
  • All the energy-expending activities that go on continuously just to sustain life
62
Q

Neutral energy balance

A
  • Energy input = Energy output
  • Body weight remains constant.
63
Q

Positive energy balance

A
  • Energy input is greater than energy output.
  • Energy not used is stored primarily as adipose.
  • Body weight increases.
64
Q

Negative energy balance

A
  • Energy input is less than energy output.
  • The body must use stored energy to supply energy needs.
  • Body weight decreases.
65
Q

Metabolic rate

A

the total amount of energy we need to expend (both internal and external work) in
order to perform a given task
MR= energy expenditure/ unit of time

66
Q

Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

A

the minimal internal energy expenditure we need to maintain in order to meet the basic physiological functions in our body

67
Q

Calorimetry assessment conditions:

A
  • Person should be at physical rest
  • Person should be at mental rest
  • Done at a comfortable room temperature
  • No food consumed within 12 hours
68
Q

Influencing metabolic rate:

A
  • Thyroid hormone levels (Primary determinant of BMR)
  • Sympathetic stimulation: epinephrine/ norepinephrine
  • Exercise
  • Daily activities
  • Sex/gender
  • Age
69
Q

Metabolism

A

the set of life-sustaining chemical processes that enables organisms transform the chemical energy stored in molecules into energy that can be used for cellular processes.

70
Q

Energy in the body

A

Every task performed by our bodies require energy
* Energy is needed to perform heavy labor and exercise
* Energy is used while thinking and even sleeping
* For every action that requires energy, many chemical reactions take place to provide chemical energy to the systems of the body, including muscles, nerves, heart, lungs, and brain

71
Q

Exothermic

A

Release energy

72
Q

Endothermic

A

require energy to proceed

73
Q

Cellular metabolism

A

All of the chemical reactions that take place inside cells are part of this

74
Q

Metabolic processes

A

break down organic molecules to release the energy for an organism to grow and survive

75
Q

Activation energy

A
  • Our body requires a certain amount of energy to get started
  • We can use enzymes to act as catalysts and lower the activation energy required for a certain chemical reaction to occur, which in turn greatly increases the reaction rate
  • each enzyme are able to control a single type of chemical reaction, if one enzyme is not active, whole pathway stops working.
76
Q

Competitive inhibition

A
  • an inhibitor molecule is similar enough to a
    substrate that it can bind to the enzyme’s active site to stop it from binding to the substrate.
  • It “competes” with the substrate to bind
    to the enzyme.
77
Q

Non-competitive inhibition

A
  • an inhibitor molecule binds to the enzyme at a location other than the active site (allosteric site)
  • The substrate can still bind to the enzyme,
    but the inhibitor changes the shape of the
    enzyme, so it is no longer in optimal position to catalyze the reaction
78
Q

Allosteric inhibitors

A
  • Allosteric activators can increase
    reaction rates.
  • They bind to an allosteric site which induces a conformational change that increases the affinity of the enzyme’s active site for its substrate.
  • This increases the reaction rate.
79
Q

Cofactors and coenzymes (on/off switch)

A
  • Many enzymes only work if bound to non-protein helper molecules.
  • Binding to these molecules promotes optimal conformation and function for their respective enzymes
  • The most common coenzymes are dietary vitamins.
80
Q

Metabolic regulation

A
  • Feedback inhibition is when a reaction product is used to regulate its own further production.
  • Cells have evolved to use feedback inhibition to regulate enzyme activity in metabolism, by using the products of the
    enzymatic reactions to inhibit further enzyme activity.
  • Metabolic reactions, such as anabolic and catabolic processes, must proceed according to cellular demands
  • In order to maintain chemical equilibrium and meet the needs of the cell, some metabolic products inhibit the enzymes in the chemical pathway while some reactants activate them.
81
Q

ATP

A
  • Anytime we are either building or breakdown something through a reaction in the body we require this
  • drives all bodily functions, such as contracting muscles, maintaining the
    electrical potential of nerve cells, and absorbing food in the gastrointestinal tract.
82
Q

ATP process

A

Are processed by digestion, carbohydrates are considered the most common source of energy to fuel the body

83
Q

Sugar catabolism

A
  • breaks polysaccharides down into their
    individual monosaccharides
  • Among the monosaccharides, glucose is the most common fuel for ATP production via cellular respiration Therefore, there are a number of endocrine control mechanisms to regulate glucose concentration in the bloodstream.
84
Q

β-oxidation

A
  • Tryglycerides are most often used for energy via this metabolic process
  • About 1/2 of the excess fat is stored in adipocytes that accumulate in the subcutaneous tissue under the skin
  • The rest is stored in adipocytes in other tissues and organs
85
Q

Amino acids

A
  • can be used as building blocks of new
    proteins or brokendown further for the production of ATP.
  • When one is chronically starving, this use of amino acids for energy production can lead to a wasting away of the body, as more and more proteins are broken down.
86
Q

Energy shuttle

A

ATP-ADP cycle acts as this for our bodies and enables our cells to functions
ADP- released spring, no more stored energy
ATP- compressed spring, with stored energy

87
Q

Oxidation-reduction reactions

A

are one category of reactions important in energy transfer
* Some of the energy released during oxidation reactions is captured when ATP is formed
* A phosphate group is added to ADP (phosphorylation) along with energy to form ATP

88
Q

Three main phases to cellular respiration:

A
  • Glycolysis
  • Kreb’s or TCA (the citric acid) cycle
  • Electron transport chain
89
Q

Glycolysis

A
  • Glucose is the body’s most readily available source of energy
    + After digestive processes, monosaccharides (Glucose, Fructose) are transported across the wall of the small intestine and into the circulatory system, which transports them to the liver.
  • Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate

+ In the liver, hepatocytes either pass the glucose on through the circulatory system or store excess glucose as glycogen
- Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose

90
Q

Where does glycoysis occur?

A

In the cytosol of the cell

91
Q

Glycolysis Process

A

Through the process of glycolysis two ATP and two NAD+ are used to covert one glucose molecule into two
pyruvate molecules, 4 ATP and 2 NADH

92
Q

Most important step in the glycolysis pathway

A

Several steps in glycolysis are regulated, but the most important control point is the third step of the pathway, which is catalyzed by phosphofructokinase (PFK).
* This reaction is the first committed step, making PFK a central target for allosteric regulation of the entire glycolysis pathway

93
Q

Up regulation

A
  • AMP
  • When a cell is very low on ATP, it will start squeezing more ATP out of ADP molecules by converting them to ATP and AMP.
  • Therefore, high levels of AMP mean that the cell is very low on energy, and that glycolysis must engaged quickly to replenish these stores.
94
Q

Down regulation:

A
  • ATP is a negative regulator of PFK (if there is already plenty of ATP in the cell, glycolysis does not need to make more)
  • Citrate building up (first product of the citric acid cycle), is a sign that glycolysis can slow down, because the citric acid cycle is
    backed up and doesn’t need more fuel.
95
Q

What happens if the cell cannot catabolize the pyruvate molecule further?

A

It will have a net gain of two ATP molecules through this anaerobic pathway from one molecule of glucose

96
Q

Aerobic respiration

A
  • the process in which organisms convert energy in the presence of oxygen— and glycolysis is their sole source of ATP.
  • Mature mammalian red blood cells are not capable of this
97
Q

What if glycolysis is interrupted?

A

these cells lose their ability to maintain
their sodium-potassium pumps, and eventually, they die.

98
Q

Krebs/TCA cycle

A

KNES 323 Kacper (2 decks)

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