meta ethics: the meaning of right and wron

Question 1

What is are the different sections of meta ethics

Answer 1

Ethical values are cognitive/factual - ethical naturalism -Utilitarianism ,situations,virtue nml

Ethical non naturalisim - Intuitionism, Divine command theory

ethical values are non cognitive-Emotivisim, prescriptivisim

Question 2

What does Jeremy Bentham mean by Utilitarianism ( ACT UTILITARIANISM)

Answer 2

Bentham starts from the observation that human lives focus on maximising pleasure and minimising pain .This then is what should direct. All human moral decision making and behaviour.

the sole intrinsic good is happiness , which Bentham understood as pleasure .

all human action should be aimed at fulfilling the greatest happiness principle

to seek the greatest good for the greatest number

To facilities this Bentham devised the hedonic calculus with seven criteria

pain could be measured / there is no differentiation in type of pleasure

Question 3

What is intuitionism

Answer 3

The idea that individuals can make successful decisions without deliberate analytic thoughts

Joel Pearson ( university’s of Wales )- these data suggest that we can use unconscious information in our body to help guide us through life to enable better decision ,faster decision and be more confident in the decision we make

Question 4

What Did GE Moore believe about ethical judgement

Answer 4

Moore believed that it is a mistake to define an ethical judgement as a factual one .
he believed that to say gooodness is the greatest good or most happiness is a fallacy - naturalistic fallacy

he said that naturalist confuse the property of goodness with some other non-ethical property that good things happen to possess.

they confuse moral judgement with factual ones .

Question 5

QUOTE from GE Moore

Answer 5

Moral conduct or duty is defined as the obligation to select that action which will achieve more good then any alternative action.

Question 6

What is Moore’s open question

Answer 6

Moore’s open question arguments to disapprove naturalism

when naturalist claim that goodness consists of things that lead to pleasure we identify one of those things and still ask the question “but is it good “, it may well be that a thing leads to pleasure but isn’t itself intrinsically good good .

so naturalistic definitions cannot be correct

Question 7

GE Moore intuitionism

Answer 7

Moore says that moral judgement can never be proven empirically.

we don’t use scientific observations or logical analysis to perceive the good .

we recognise them intuitively when we see them and in this sense Moore is an intuitionist

Moral judgement are incapable of being proven

Question 8

How do all human beings know by intuition

Answer 8

The most valuable things which we know or can imagine are certified states of consciousness which may roughly be described as the pleasure of human intercourse and the enjoyment of beautiful objects .

Question 9

GE Moore things that are good cannot be defined or analysed

Answer 9

If I am asked what is good then my answer is that good is good and that is the end of the matter.Or if I am asked how is good defined . My answer is that cannot be defined and that is all that I have to say about it

Question 10

SIMPLE ADN COMPLEX IDEAS

Answer 10

Simple ideas cannot be described in any other way - for example yellow is just yellow it cannot be reduced

complex ideas can be reduced for example - a horse can be reduced to its different features or organs

good is a a simple idea it cannot be reduced or identified

Question 11

Intuitionism as stand alone beliefs

Answer 11

They are not supported by the interference from other beliefs.This makes sense you would not say your cognition of yellow relies on interference from other beliefs

moral beliefs are self evident to those who hold them

this means intuitionism is a form of moral realism it’s independent of those who hold them

Question 12

Who is WD Ross

Answer 12

He was a Scottish philosopher

hid views show that he was a moral realist and an ethical non naturalist

Question 13

DW Ross duties

Answer 13

In the right of the good (1930) ,Ross pointed out that people sometimes have conflicting duties and it may not be at all obvious which one takes priority.

For example a doctor sees it as her duty to keep patient pain free as and it’s their duty to also avoid killing the patient ,there comes a point where quantities of pain killers increases to meet the first duty ,when it’s likely to hasten death and therefore conflicts with the second duty

Question 14

Ross - Prima Facie Duties

Answer 14

1- keep our promises

2-pay back the harm we do to others

3-do not injure others

4-return favours and services given to us by others

5- Do not harm innocent people

6-Look after parents

Question 15

The prima Facie explanation

Answer 15

These duties he called the prima Facie meaning at “first face”

by this he meant that if there are no conflicting circumstances these duties are absolute however if there is then I have to balance them and consider what to do .

Here Ross is advocating that we should be reasonable and sensible enough to work this out , we are not just instinctual creature like animals are , we have the ability to critically reason

Question 16

WD ROSS quote

Answer 16

So providing we have sufficient mental maturity Ross argues that our judgement on prima Facie is the intuited truth

“The moral order in these duties is just as much part of the fundamental nature of the universe “

Question 17

Strength of intuitionism

Answer 17

• It allows for objective moral values to be identified and therefore proposes a form of moral realism it is not a question of dismissing the possibility of any moral factsc
• Intuitionism may be associated with the idea of conscience as a moral guide .

Question 18

Problems with intuitionism

Answer 18

People do intuit and reason to different conclusions and their is no obvious way to resolve their differences

• intuition may be considered to be a meaningless concept since it’s non verifiable (AYER)
• Hume argued that we have a motivation to act in certain ways however intuition may respond with suggesting that , if we feel motivated to act in a certain way then our intuition is guiding us towards it

Question 19

what is humes is and ought argument

Answer 19

humes main point is that you cannot move from an “IS” to an “OUGHT”

In other words you cannot move from a statement about the world to a statment about how humans are ought do doin that world

statements are from different realms ,therefore different premises and conclusions.

Ought is not an empirical statement its a subjective one people act differently

Nothing in a descriptive statement that allows us to proceed from what people do to making a ruling about what people should do .

Question 20

DIVINE C- Religious and Secular ethics

Answer 20

Religious ethics are ethics that genrally states that ethical values come from GOD.( buddhism being the exception )

Secular ethics could contend to ethics that come from the government ,the authority or societal values ..

Question 21

What did Richard Dawkins believe about Religious ethics

Answer 21

He contends that religion causes immorality and can be “pernicious”(evil)

He wrote a book called “God delusion”explaining his argument against faith and belief in God

he is an advocate of science

Question 22

Divine command theory -ten commmandments

Answer 22

These are examples of ten divine commands

-A natrualist (so God not intuition) would say here is an example of ethical values that come from God that we should follow

Question 23

Differences between Catholic and Protestant Command Theory

Answer 23

These two different Christian denominations approach differently

both accept them but there is a focus in protestantism on the revelation of scripture .All is revealed in the good book

In catholicism they accept revelation through scripture but the magisterium also has a role in helping us understand the divine commands .

Question 24

Prima Facie link to intuitionism

Answer 24

This is where moral intuitionism comes in .where I am forced to consider conflicting duties , if I really do consider them well then I can use my common sense / intuition will tell me what I am ought to do .

Fo example the well known problem in kantian ethics of the mad axe murderer For Ross such evasions are necessary,you would simply lie to the maniac because you have a primia facia duty to protect the innocent , here Ross says that careful thinking will reveal an intuitive truth the intended victims life is more important then any problem with lying .

Question 25

Divine Command - John Calvin-

Answer 25

John calvin uses the DCT to explain his belief of predestination

“The will of God is the supreme rule of righteousness , so that everything he wills must be held to be righteous by the mere fact of his willing it .

For calvin DCT is a natrual result of of the absloute power of GOD .

Question 26

DCT- Karl Barth

Answer 26

“For a mans Obedience to God is the answer to all questions about ethics

“It makes Gods commands for a man the judgment of what he has done and the order of his future actions .

In other words that comands of God set Christian ethics apart from genral discussions about what is good or right and totally over ride fallible human debate on moral issues

Question 27

DCT-

Answer 27

• Although recognising the fallibility of individual Christians, Catholics believe that Christ gave to the leaders of his Church – and particularly to the Pope, the Bishop of Rome – the authority to make pronouncements on matters of doctrine and ethics.
• This does not make the Pope infallible in ordinary matters (he remains a fallible human being), but special pronouncements, made on the basis of his authority as Pope, are infallible. In other words, for Catholics, they represent the will of Christ, and should not be challenged on the basis of human reason or evidence.

Question 28

strengths of DCT

Answer 28

. For religious people, Divine Command Theory grounds their moral behaviour in the teachings of a factually-existing God. Most believers see God as all-knowing and all-loving, so they have the advantage of believing that God’s commands must be right, and that they must be the best way of promoting love in human relationships

The rules are universal, and are right for all times and places. This avoids the problem of trying to sort out different moral ideas in different countries at different times

Question 29

Weakness of DCT problem

Answer 29

Reconstructed Text -Even if the moral commands in the Bible come from God (and not from humans), we cannot tell whether they are as God gave them. We have no ‘original’ version of any Old Testament book, so the texts we use today are in many cases attempts to reconstruct what might have been the original meaning

The Bible contains immoral commands-If some commands are seen as immoral, then Divine Command Theory offers no real solution of the normative ethical question of which moral commands should be followed

Question 30

DCT- The problem of autonommy

Answer 30

• The problem of autonomy. Many, perhaps the majority, think that to be morally good, a choice has to be made freely.
• Divine Command Theory does not really offer a free choice, because the promise of heaven and the threat of hell mean that people will choose to follow God’s commands out of self-interest.

Morality should be based on reason, not on religious belief

Question 31

DCT- The Euthyphro dilemma - response to iy

Answer 31

• ‘Is conduct right because the gods command it, or do the gods command it because it is right?’
• Soren Kierkegaard
• Abraham is “the knight of faith”
• Abraham looks like a barbaric madman but Kierkegaard’s contests there is no way for Abraham to communicate God’s command in any sensible way – it is a lonely position.
• Faith is deeply personal
• Abraham must ‘suspend’ his commitment to morality in order to undertake this divine command.

Question 32

What is natrualisim

Answer 32

Naturalism is grounded in the facts of nature , it can be deduced and observed in human nature and behaviour ,ofcoutrse as in DCT morality is grounded in the commands of a transcendent god so its far from being a naturalistic ethical theory .

A utilitarian will see the good in the facts about pleasure and pain happiness and misery from which utilitarians form the normative theory that we ought to do what brings the greatest happiness for the greatest number

Question 33

Aristotle- VIrtue ethics

Answer 33

A virtue ethicist will see the good in the facts about eudaimonia ( complete wellbeing).

Mordern virtue ethics might see the good in the facts about the environment as a whole including planst and ecosystems .

Question 34

recap of ethical naturalism

Answer 34

naturalist theories often talk of intrinsic good meaning the value that something has in itself , and holding that this good (such as eudaimonia ) its self evident .

Naturalist theories do have common denominators .For example NMLand virtue ethical both emphasise the value of particular virtues since these lead to eudaimonia .

Question 35

History of bentham and Mill

Answer 35

Jeremy B is the father of utilitarianism , B advocated for the abolishment of slavery

Mill was the first in parliment to call for women to have a vote .

Both called for prison reform

The idea of good being achieved for the many which is core to utilitarianism can be seen as the foundation of modern day democracy

Question 36

Jeremy Bentham

Answer 36

Bentham set out not to create a new ethical theory but too create a hands on principle that coud be used to remodel the the british legal system

Bentham was apalled by the social conditions of his time and decided to set up a simple moral rule that everyone could relate to

Bentham believed people were motivated by pleasure and pain , this was an empirical observation people seek pleasure and avoid pain

Question 37

QUOTE Bentham

Answer 37

“Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters , pain and pleasure “

He believed that in all life people would try to get as much pleasure as possible and avoid pain

he argues the natural feature of life determines both descriptive and normative ethics .In effect he identifies here the oriin of both science of human behaviour and an ethical theory

he identifies pleasure and pain as not only governing human lifr but also what we ought to do

Question 38

Bentham UT

Answer 38

is teleological and relative

Bentham does not have moral absloutes

What maximises and minimises pain changes in different situations with different people ,this said there are two intrinsics that bentham believes are incontrovertible

pleasure is the one intrinsic good ,it is good in and of itself

this entails that pain is the one intrinsic evil

Morality is therefore linked to observations and experience - the very essence of ethical naturalism

Question 39

The hedonic calculus

Answer 39

And because happiness is based on our observations of it as a natrual phenomenon we are able to calculate it in terms of its : intensity ,duration ,certainty ,proximity ,productiveness,purity and extent .

Question 40

the hedonic calculus buddah

Answer 40

an ascetic is someone who avoids freshly pleasure and lives a life of strict self discipline .

siddhartha met an indian ascetic who taught him to live with even tougher self discipline .siddhartha also started to meditate but this did not fullfill his desire for enlightenment .After living this way for six years he still felt unable to escape worldly suffering .he then relaxed his strictness of his life and lived the middle way nither in abject poverty or extravagent wealth.

Question 41

JOHN stuart MILL biography

Answer 41

JOHN stuart was the god son of bentham

he supported capital punishment for its deterrant effect

agreed with bentham about society and trying to establish a better society

however he disregarded bethams calculus as he believed that not all pleasures were equal

Question 42

Benthams quote

Answer 42

all pleasures are equal

“the value which they possess is exactly in proportion to the pleasure they yield “

” prejudice apart the game of push pin is of equal value with the arts and sciences of music and poetry”

mills brand of UT differed in many respects for example he rejected benthams view that all pleasures were equal and measurable and he insisted that there are “higher” cultural and intellectual pleasures and that these are to be preffered to lower physical ones

Question 43

Benthams flaws

Answer 43

• One flaw was that terrible things like could be justified like slavery as long majority agreed with it.

For Mill this was a mistake higher order pleasures are more important and reflect our capacities as humans

For Mill it was no true “pushpin is equal to poetry “

Question 44

MILL QUALITY

Answer 44

nevetheless we can see that Mill was an ethical naturalist because hhe described happiness (Good) in terms of the quality of life rather quantity of pleasure - for him the quality is based ona view about the relative importance of different human attributes ;physical ,social cultural and intellectual

For him UT is all about a fair and just distribution of those natural benefits.

Question 45

MILL RULES

Answer 45

Mill also argued that rather then considering only the anticipated result of a particular actions it was important to take into account the positive benefits offered by the genral moral rules or principles

• He argued that many moral rules have developed naturally because it was found that not stealing lying or mudering had beneficial effects on society .
• In other words such principles were justified because they produce a balance of pleasure over pain.

Question 46

ACT UT , RULE UT