Meta-ethics

Question 1

What is meta-ethics?

Answer 1

This is an area in philosophy that attempts to answer a question of what goodness actually is, including whether it even exist within the world

Question 2

What are the two ethical standpoints ?

Answer 2

• absolutism
• relativism

Question 3

Define absolutism

Answer 3

Morals are fixed, unchanging truths that everyone should always follow [i.e kantian ethics or natural law]

Question 4

Define relativism

Answer 4

Moral truths are not fixed and absolute. What is right changes according to : the individual, situation, culture, time and place [i.e situation ethics]

Question 5

Explain naturalism

Answer 5

• naturalism is an ethical theory that holds that morals are fixed absolutes in the universe
• they can be observed in the physical world [i.e goodness can be observed]

Question 6

How does naturalism and utilitarianism link ?

Answer 6

• utilitarianism is a type of naturalism like Bentham’s - would claim that goodness = pleasure
• utilitarianism stresses that the maximum amount of pleasure for the maximum amount of people,this pleasure is observed the same way naturalism believed goodness is observed

Question 7

F.H Bradley (social naturalist scholar)- supporter of naturalism

Answer 7

[1846-1924] wrote his book ‘Ethical studies’ 1876

• Bradley focuses on duty, claiming that our duty is universal, concrete and objective
• when we look at our place in society we can work out our duty to others in that society
• our duty is discoverable the same way scientific principles were discoverable

Question 8

Why is F.H Bradley a social naturalism thinker ?

Answer 8

• good comes form understanding place in society, moral duties that accompany it and function in it
• e.g duty to act morally for society

Question 9

Thomas Aquinas (theological naturalist) - supporter of naturalism

Answer 9

[1225-1274] he wrote the book ‘summa theologica’

• Aquinas linked goodness to the divine will of God in the scripture and in nature (e.g adultery and homosexuality is respectively wrong)
• the view that moral are fixed, uncaring truths that everyone should follow

Question 10

Why is Thomas Aquinas a theological naturalist thinker ?

Answer 10

• Aquinas focuses on the religious, Christian, aspect of naturalism and the idea that linking goodness to divine will
• e.g (observing beauty and goodness)

Question 11

R.B Perry (hedonic naturalist) - supporter of naturalism

Answer 11

• he believed that right actions bring about the most harmonious happiness
• (e.g murder is wrong because it makes the most people unhappy)

Question 12

Why is R.B Perry a hedonic naturalist thinker ?

Answer 12

This is because he follows bentham’s hedonism (maximum amount of pleasure for the greatest number of people)

Question 13

David Hume - critic of naturalism

Answer 13

[1711-1776] he wrote ‘A Treatise of Human Nature’

• Hume claims that moral claims are derived from sentiment, not reason, outlined in the book above
• this lead to Hume’s law : you cannot go from an ‘is’ (fact) to an ‘ought’ (moral judgement)
  -e.g you cannot say Hitler committed murder, therefore Hitler is bad - as that would be going from a fact to a moral judgement

Question 14

Phillips Foot (contemporary naturalist) - supporter of naturalism

Answer 14

[1920-2010] she wrote ‘Natural Goodness (2001)’

• Foot argues against Hume by claiming that moral evil is ‘a kind of natural law’, and you can use logic to defend moral rules, therefore if it can be proven it must be a fact and absolute
• e.g when we call someone a ‘just man’ or ‘honest woman’, its their action of being just and doing good, which can be proven by their actions preventing the violation of rights (facts), which supports the title given to them
• basically a just man is a fact, moral objective truth proven by his actions. So it is not an ‘ought’ as Hume claims

Question 15

J.L Mackie - critic of naturalism

Answer 15

[1917-1981] he wrote ‘Ethics : Inventing Rights and Wrong (1977)’

• he claims if we should follow the rules of an institution e.g the mutually agreed rules
• following these ‘mutually agreed rules’ is not at all the same as responding logically to facts
• rules can be followed by observation but they are ultimately based on traditions rather than objective facts
• basically he says if i go to school and I’m told not to shout out loud, that rule depends on the rules of the institution being accepted as in a different situation that may not be a rule

Question 16

Strengths of naturalism

Answer 16

• if verified they are objective truths that apply to everyone (universal), meaning that goodness will be held consistently throughout societies
• ## by scientifically investigating the impact we as humans can determine whether it was good or bad

Question 17

Weaknesses of naturalism