Meredith's Section

Question 1

Melbourne Graduate Attributes: Active Citizenship

Answer 1

High regard for human rights, social inclusion, ethics and the environment; awareness of the social and cultural diversity in communities; understanding of and deep respect for Indigenous knowledge, culture and values.

Question 2

Melbourne Graduate Attributes

Answer 2

1. Academic Distinction
2. Active Citizenship
3. Integrity and Self-Awareness

Question 3

Melbourne Graduate Attributes: Integrity and Self-awareness

Answer 3

Self-aware and reflective, with skills in self-assessment, and place great important on their personal and professional integrity.

Question 4

The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) 4 Guiding Ethical Principles:

Answer 4

1. Research merit and integrity
2. Justice
3. Beneficence
4. Respect

Question 5

The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) 4 Guiding Principles: Respect

Answer 5

Recognition that each human being has value, and that this value must inform all interaction between people.

Includes recognising the value of “human autonomy” (i.e. the capacity to determine one’s own life and make one’s own decision)

⭐️Respect for human beings is the common thread through all discussions of ethical values

Question 6

The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) 4 Guiding Principles: Research Merit and Integrity

Answer 6

Unless proposed research has MERIT, and the researchers who are to carry out the research have INTEGRITY, the involvement of human participants in the research cannot be ethically justifiable.

Question 7

The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) 4 Guiding Principles: Justice

Answer 7

Involves a regard for the human sameness that each person shares with every.

It includes:

1. Distributive justice: in research is expressed in the fair distribution of the benefits and burdens of research
2. Procedural justice: is expressed in ‘fair treatment’ in the recruitment of participants and the review of research

⭐️While benefit to the humankind is an important result of research, it also matters that benefits of research are achieved through just means, are distributed fairly, and involve no unjust burdens ⬅️ MEANS = IMPORTANT

Question 8

The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) 4 Guiding Principles: Beneficence

Answer 8

Assessing and taking account of the risks of harm and the potential benefits of research to participants and to the wider society.

Question 9

Approaches to Ethics: Deontological (duty-based) ethics

Answer 9

⭐️Concerned with the reasons for why people decide to act in certain ways, rather than with the consequences of their actions

It’s a rational and upfront approach to what is good and bad.

⭐️Some acts are right or wrong in principle, so we have a duty to act accordingly, regardless of the consequences

• The ends do not justify the means
• It’s never justifiable to use another being as a means to an end; treat people how you’d like to be treated

Question 10

Approaches to Ethics: Consequentialism - Utilitarianism

Answer 10

⭐️Ethical decision based on the consequences, rather than in the value of the actions themselves.

-Not so much a focus on the means, all is good when the outcome is good irrespective of how you get there

When faced with a moral dilemma:

• One should choose the action that maximises good consequences
• One should live so as to maximise good consequences

Utilitarianism: people should maximise human wellbeing. “The greatest good for the greatest number of people”

Question 11

Trolley Dilemmas

Answer 11

They argue that different responses to impersonal and personal forms of the trolley dilemma implicate a role for both unconscious emotional responses and reasoning in moral decision making.

Conclusion: Moral reasoning is not always rational and can be inconsistent. ⬅️ Questions Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral development
⭐️We now emphasise the role of emotional processes, unconscious biases, and the malleability if ethical reasoning and behaviour

Question 12

The APS Code of Ethics: 3 Guiding Principles

Answer 12

A. Respect
B. Propriety
C. Integrity

Question 13

The APS Code of Ethics: General Principle A: Respect for the rights and dignity of people and peoples

Answer 13

-Must acknowledge the legal and moral rights of individuals, their dignity and right to participate in decisions affective their lives (autonomy)
⬆️consent
-Recognise importance of people’s privacy and confidentiality
-Maintain a high regard for the diversity and uniqueness of people ⬅️ cultural sensitivity
-Acknowledge people’s right to be treated fairly without discrimination/favouritism

Question 14

The APS Code of Ethics: General Principle B: Propriety

Answer 14

• Must practice within the limits of their competence (know when to refer on)
• Undertake continuing professional development; take steps to remain competent (lifelong learner)
• Provide services that are beneficial to people and do not harm them
• Put welfare of clients above their own self-interest

Question 15

The APS Code of Ethics: General Principle C: Integrity

Answer 15

• Be honest and objective in professional dealings
• Committed to the best interests of client
• Identify and avoid potential conflicts of interest
• Refrain from exploiting clients
• Aware of own biases, limits to their objectivity, and importance of maintaining proper boundaries with clients (self-reflection)

Question 16

APS Ethical Decision Making Model

Answer 16

⭐️Deontological approach (rule-based)

1. Recognise there is an ethical issue present
2. Clarify the ethical issues
3. Generate and examine the available courses of action (⬅️premeditative: what are the possible courses of actions and outcomes?)
4. Choose and implement the most preferred option
5. Reflect on and review the process

Question 17

APS Ethical Decision Making Model:

1. Recognise that there is an ethical issue present

Answer 17

⭐️Learn to recognise potential ethical problems: “Is something NQR?” “Would I be comfortable if my colleagues knew about this situation?”
⭐️Determine whether the problem is an ethical one that is your responsibility: Has info come from a reliable source? Is the problem a shared responsibility?

Question 18

APS Ethical Decision Making Model:

2. Clarify the ethical issues

Answer 18

⭐️Identify the ethical principles involved: Respect for the rights and dignity of all people and peoples, Propriety, Integrity
-Are there any competing ethical principles? Which is the overriding principle?
-How can more time be claimed to make the best decision?
⭐️Evaluate the rights, responsibilities and vulnerabilities of all affected parties

Question 19

APS Ethical Decision Making Model:
3. Generate and examine available course of action
supervisor, etc.

Answer 19

• Pause to consider all factors that might influence the decision you will make including level of competence or any social/cultural factors
• Consult a trusted colleague,

Question 20

APA Ethical Decision Making Model:

4. Choose and implement the most preferred option

Answer 20

-Document the issue and how you decided on the course of action including: any communication with colleagues, reference to ethics resources

Question 21

APS Ethical Decision Making Model:

5. Reflect on and review the process

Answer 21

• Could I have prevented the issue from developing?
• Am I satisfied with what I chose to do?
• Could anything at all have been done differently?

Question 22

Melbourne Graduate Attributes: Academic Distinction

Answer 22

In-depth knowledge of specialist discipline; bring research and inquiry skills to challenges in workplaces and communities; able to critically evaluate alternative possibilities and viewpoints

Question 23

Behavioural Ethics (Bazerman and Gino)

Answer 23

The study of the:

• Psychological, situational and social forces that influence ethical behaviour
• Systematic ways in which humans depart from intuitive ethical expectations and the goals of the broader society

Question 24

Role of Behavioural Ethicists

Answer 24

• Understand the antecedents and consequences of both ethical and unethical actions
• Identify factors at both the individual and institutional level to change ethically questionable behaviour
• Develop interventions to improve ethical decision making

Question 25

Bazerman et al. (1998): The “should” self

Answer 25

The long-term desire to be a good and ethical person and to be seen as by others.

Rational, cognitive, thoughtful, and “cool-headed”

Question 26

Bazerman et al. (1998):

The “want” self

Answer 26

A more short-term desire to behave in a way that would advance one’s self-interest.

Reflected in choices that are emotional, affective, impulsive, and “hot-headed”

Question 27

Key Insights from Behavioural Ethics

Answer 27

⭐️Morality is shown to be dynamic and malleable, rather than reflecting not a stable trait/stage of development.
Individuals may not behave consistently across different situations and they may cross ethical boundaries under situational pressures.

⭐️Moral reasoning and decisions are strongly driven by automatic and unconscious self-serving biases.

⭐️Automatic and unconscious self-serving biases result in ethical reasoning and decision-making that is ‘bounded’ (limited)

Question 28

Bounded Ethicality

Answer 28

Describes the systematic and predictable psychological processes that lead people to engage in ethically questionable behaviours that are inconsistent with their own preferred ethics.

⭐️Refers to the limits on the quality of decision-making processes for decisions that have ethical import (what are the limits imposed on us in ethical situations?)

⭐️The drive to maintain the view of oneself as moral, competent and deserving can be a barrier to recognising otherwise visible conflicts of interest.
Can recognise ethical issues for others, but strongly when the issue is pertinent to ourselves.

⭐️We overestimate the influence of our own intention and underestimate the influence of the psychological forces outside of our consciousness.
These motivated psychological processes put the decision-making of even highly moral people at risk.

Question 29

Thinking Fast and Slow: Bounded Rationality (Kahneman and Tversky):
Cognitive heuristics and biases

Answer 29

⭐️People rely on simplifying strategies known as cognitive heuristics and biases (useful shortcuts that can lead to predictable mistakes).

Heuristic (a rule of thumb): A simple procedure that helps find adequate, though often imperfect, answers to difficult questions.

Bias: A systematic error of judgment; tendency to think about things in a certain way.

Question 30

Thinking Fast and Slow: Bounded Rationality (Kahneman and Tversky):
Implicit processes

Answer 30

Are those of which the decision-maker is unaware, which are automatic and not necessarily under the control of the decision-maker.

Fast = System 1

Question 31

Thinking Fast and Slow: Bounded Rationality (Kahneman and Tversky):
Explicit Processes

Answer 31

Are those of which the decision-maker is aware and can consciously endorse.

Slow = System 2

They are the rational, effortful, cognitive decisions people make.

Question 32

Implicit Stereotypes (Greenwald and Banaji, 1995)

Answer 32

The introspectively unidentifiable (or inaccurately identified) traces of past experience that mediate attributions of qualities to members of a social category.

Examined using the Implicit Association Task (IAT)

Question 33

Ethical Fading

Answer 33

Describes the psychological process by which ethical decisions are “bleached” of their moral implications.

⭐️Euphemisms argued to be a key mechanism for ethical fading