memory (old deck) Flashcards
define memory
the mental processes involved in registering, storing and retrieving information
who proposed the multistore model?
Atkinson and Shiffrin
what does the multistore model infer?
memory is stored in different components → each component differs in terms of capacity, duration and encoding
What’s the duration of the sensory register?
less than 2 seconds
What’s the capacity of the sensory register?
large but limited
What’s the capacity of STM?
7 plus or minus 2 items
What’s the duration of STM?
2-18 seconds
What’s the coding of STM?
acoustic
What’s the function of the STM?
Process information
What’s the capacity of LTM?
unlimited
What’s the duration of LTM?
20 seconds to a lifetime
What’s the coding of LTM?
semantic
What’s the function of the LTM?
stores information
Describe how the multistore model works
1) info from the environment enters the sensory register → will decay if attention not paid
2) enters STM, if rehearsed moves onto LTM → if not, will decay
the more time info is rehearsed the more likely it is to be remembered
A03 Evaluation: multistore model of memory
HM- Milner (2006)
- had brain surgery, had memory deficits, STM normal (able to recall 6 numbers in order), LTM defective (couldn’t remember psychologist name who he’d spent a long time with)
KF - Warrington (1970)
- motorcycle accident, brain injuries, intact LTM, defective STM → easy to recall stored information but a recency effect of 1 item
Define capacity
how much can be held in one place
Who proposed the digit span technique (chunking)
Miller
What did Miller propose about STM capacity?
-we chunk things together so we can remember more
-STM can be increased by chunking
07 405 871 542
What are the factors that affect STM capacity?
- Reading the material aloud
- Degree of anxiety
Define duration
how long memory lasts until it’s no longer available
who investigated the duration of LTM?
Peterson & Peterson
How did Peterson & Peterson investigate the duration of LTM without rehearsal?
1) ppts presented with a consonant trigram followed by a 3-digit number (HSU 729)
2) immediately after hearing they had to recall backwards (to prevent rehearsal)
3) each pp had different retention periods
FINDINGS
90% remembered when 3 second interval
2% remembered when 18 second interval
CONCLUSION
when rehearsal is prevented, STM lats 20 seconds at most
Who investigated LTM duration?
Bahrick
How did Bahrick investigate the duration of the LTM?
1) 392 American HS graduates
2) various tests used including recognition of classmate pics, matching pictures to names
FINDINGS
-pps were up to 70% accurate up to 47 years and after
-there was a dip in performance after this
CONCLUSION
memories can be retained in LTM for a long period of time
Define encoding
the way information is changed so it can be stored as memory
Who investigated the coding of material in the STM?
Conrad
How did Condrad investigate the type coding in the STM?
1) pps were projected a rapid sequence of consonants and had to rewrite it in the correct order
condition 1 → acoustically similar (BGCTVP)
condition 2 → acoustically dissimilar (GOIBD)
FINDINGS
made frequent errors for letters that sounded the same
CONCLUSION
this acoustic confusion suggests we convert visual info into acoustic code in the STM
Evaluate Conrads study on STM coding
:) controlled lab environment (internal validity)
:( artificial task (lacks ecological validity)
:( he used students (low population validity)
Who investigated the effects of acoustic and semantic similarity on short and long-term recall?
Baddeley
Describe the procedure of investigating the effects of acoustic and semantic similarity on short and long-term recall
4 conditions given 10 words
condition A: acoustically similar words
condition B: acoustically dissimilar words
condition C: semantically similar words
condition D: semantically dissimilar words
had to then recall 5 words from their list (went through 5 sets of this)
2nd part of the experiment the recall was tested after 20mins
FINDINGS
-pps difficulty remembering acoustically similar words in STM not LTM
-semantic similar words little problem for STM but
What are the types of long-term memory?
procedural, semantic and episodic
Define procedural memory
‘knowing’ how to do things e.g. riding a bike
does not require a conscious effort
Define declarative memory
recalling information that requires a conscious effort
Define semantic memory
involves “knowing that” e.g. capital of England is London
requires a conscious effort
Define episodic memory
things we have experienced in our lives, compared to a diary, time-stamped memories e.g. first day of school
Evaluation of types of long term memory
:) RESEARCH EVIDENCE Clive Wearing - was unable to store any new memories but could still play the piano carefully, procedural memory unaffected
:) BRAIN SCAN STUDIES Tulving (1994)
got ppts to do memory tasks during a brain scan
episodic and semantic memory called from the prefrontal cortex which is divided into 2 sections → semantic recalled from the left → episodic recalled from the right
Why was the working memory model proposed?
Baddeley and Hitch → to give a better understanding of the STM → must have more than one component
Central Executive
gives tasks and co-ordinates ones to give out to slave systems
is the ‘boss’
Episodic buffer
temporary store to integrate visual, spatial and verbal information
Visuospatial sketchpad
Deals with visual info, shape size, colour (anything seen)
Spatial is how we estimate space between objects e.g parking
Phonological loop
‘inner ear’ is what you hear
deals with auditory information
Articulatory control system → ‘inner voice’ words that are heard and silently repeated for completing maintenance rehearsal
Evaluation Working Memory model
:) KF case study → brain injuries from motorcycle accident → defective STM → mainly for verbal info, memory for visual info was unaffected → shows STM made from separate components
:) REAL WORLD APPLICATION → applies to real-life tasks → VSS applies to navigational skills e.g. where we are in relation to desks and chairs so we don’t bump into anything
Why do we forget?
-the memory is no longer available
-memory cannot be retrieved
What did Baddeley say forgetting occurs for?
Interference with other memories
Define proactive interference
past information interferes with the ability to remember new information
Define retroactive information
recent information interferes with the ability to remember past information
When is interference most likely to occur
when the memories are similar e.g. confusing old and new telephone numbers
Evaluation for interference
:) EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE
McGeoch and McDonald (1931)
1) pps learnt a list of adjectives until they could recall them perfectly
2) some spent 10 minutes resting, while others learnt new material → new material varied in similarity to the old material
FINDINGS
the more similar the material to the original, the more the recall declined e.g. synonys
CONCLUSION
showed retroactive interference affected recall
:( CRITICISM OF EVIDENCE
-lab experiment (lack ecological validity)
What is retrieval failure?
information in the long-term memory cannot be accessed because retrieval cues are not present
What does Tulving say about retrieval failure?
information would be more readily retrieved if the cues present when the information was encoded were also present when retrieval is required
Context-dependent forgetting
Retrieval cues may be based on the setting in which info is encoded, retrieval is more likely when the context at encoding matches the context at retrieval e.g going downstairs to remember again
State-dependent forgetting
memory will be best when a person’s physical or psychological state is similar at encoding and retrieval e.g. drunk or sober
Evaluation of retrieval failure
:) EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE
Godden and Baddeley
13 males 5 females
1) learn list of words in 1/4 conditions
- dry learn wet recall
-dry learn dry recall
-wet learn dry recall
-wet learn wet recall
FINDINGS
50% better recall when the learning and recall were the same
CONCLUSION
environmental cues do improve recall supports cue dependent theory
Evaluation of Godden and Baddeley’s experiment for retrieval failure
:( artificial task (lacks ecological validity)
:) supported by further evidence
Carter & Cassaday (1998)
state-dependent retrieval
antihistamines, ppts best recalled when in the same state of mind
what are the factors affecting the accuracy of EWT
-misleading information (leading questions)
-post-event discussion
-anxiety
Who investigated the effect of leading questions on EWT?
Loftus
How did Loftus investigate the effect of leading questions on EWT?
SMASH BUMP COLLIDE
45 students shown a film
- after each film given a questionnaire about how fast the cars going
-5 questions phrased slightly different
smashed, bumped, collided, hit at contacted
FINDINGS
smashed → mean speed 40.8 mph
contacted → mean speed 31.8 mph
Who investigated the effect of post-event discussion on EWT?
Gabbert
How did Gabbert investigate the effect of post-event discussion on EWT?
WALLET THEFT VIDEO
60 uni students 60 local community
-watched video of girl stealing money
tested individually (control) or in pairs (co-witness group)
they were told they all had seen the same video but they saw different perspectives of the crime (one one saw her steal)
then they all had a discussion
FINDINGS
60% said the girl was guilty even though they didn’t see her commit the crime
good population validity, low ecological validity
Who investigated the weapon focus effect?
Loftus
How did Loftus investigate the weapon focus effect?
condition 1) A man came to the room with grease on his hands
condition 2 → A man came to the room angry with blood on a paper knife
ppts had to identify man from 50 photos
FINDINGS
49% accurate with grease
31% accurate with blood
lacks ecological validity
EVALUATION
titanic → 75% said boat broke down as it sank → was true → details from a traumatic event can be recalled accurately
YERKES DODSONS CURVE
stress has an optimum point
Who conducted the cognitive interview?
Geiselman
What are the main techniques used in cognitive interview?
Context Reinstatement (CR)
-recall the scene, may trigger retrieval cues
Report Everything (RE)
-may highlight something overlooked
Reverse Order (RO)
-helps verify accuracy
Recall from changed perspective (CP)
-promotes holistic view, enhance recall
What did features did Fisher add to enhance cognitive interview?
-minimise distractions
-actively listen to witness
-ask open-ended questions
-pause after each response
-avoid interruptions
-encourage use of imagery
-adapt language to suit the witness
-avoid judgemental questions
Evaluation Cognitive Interview
Fisher (1990)
real-life police settings in Miami
used trained detectives to use Fishers enhanced cognitive interview techniques and found it revealed a lot more information
→ lacks population validity, Miami
Officers in the UK find it time consuming
