memory and learning Flashcards

1
Q

Define memory?

A

The faculty for recalling past events and past learning.

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2
Q

Name and explain the activities involved in memory?

A

Encoding—Getting information into memory in the first place

Storage—Retaining memories for future use

Retrieval—Recapturing memories when we need them

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3
Q

name the theories of memory?

A

Psychologists have developed a number of models of explanation, including the information-processing model and the parallel distributed-processing model, or connectionist model.

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4
Q

explain the information-processing model?

A

information-processing model view of memory suggesting that information moves among three memory stores during encoding, storage, and retrieval.

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5
Q

what is iconic memory?

A

visual sensory memory is also called iconic memory, meaning it is like a small copy of the visual event we have just encountered, just as a computer icon is a small visually descriptive representation of the program or file it represents

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6
Q

what is echoic memory?

A

echoic memory is an auditory system that holds information for a short time.

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7
Q

define the three-stage memory model.

A

1- Sensory memory: holds sensory information that lasts up to 1/2 sec for visual; 2-4 sec for auditory the capacity is large.
2- working memory: holds information temporarily for analysis up to 30 sec without rehearsal the capacity is limited to 5-9 items
3- long-term memory: relatively permanent storage with relatively unlimited capacity.

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8
Q

explain working memory and short-term memory?

A

1- multi-store model: a storage location-somewhere that stimuli could be held for a brief period of time. (Atkinson and Shiffrin)
2- working memory: composed of a number of related process with different systems responsible for processing the different kinds of information while consciously working on, keeping it available for immediate access. (Baddeley and Hitch)

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9
Q

explain the 3 system of Baddeley and Hitch’s short-term memory?

A

1- The central executive is the supervisory system that monitors and coordinates the entire working memory system by allocating attentional resources and selectively prioritizing information as it relates to two subsystems: the phonological/ articulatory loop and the visuospatial sketchpad.
2-The phonological loop processes spoken and written information; it is frequently likened to a “little voice” that continually repeats what needs to be remembered, keeping that information active in memory.
3- The visuospatial sketchpad keeps track of images and spatial locations needed for navigation purposes, and is frequently referred to as the inner eye.
4- In 2000 Baddeley added a third subsystem, the episodic buffer, that serves to link together information from the other parts of working memory and also creates links to time and order as well as to long-term memory.

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10
Q

what is the difference between short-term memory and working memory?

A

working memory is an entire theoretical framework composed of hierarchical processes used to temporarily store and manipulate information in short-term storage.
So, in many ways, working memory is short-term memory, but is composed of a number of sub-systems, rather than a unitary model as first proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin

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11
Q

what is needed to maintain attention?

A

To maintain attention on a specific task, one needs to have a goal.

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12
Q

what is the role of executive attention?

A

working memory and executive function is controlled by executive attention; responsible for maintenance of goals and controlling interference while a person is engaged in complex cognitive tasks.

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13
Q

what is memory stores?

A

The three systems of memory proposed by the information-processing model are comparable to the operation of a computer.
Sensory memory, working memory, long-term memory. all three are called memory stores.

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14
Q

what is parallel distributed-processing model?

A

parallel distributed-processing model (PDP) (or connectionist model), holds that newly-encountered pieces of information immediately join with other, previously-encountered pieces of relevant information to help form and grow networks of information. (Baddeley and Hitch).

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15
Q

what is automatic processing?

A

automatic processing encoding of information with little conscious awareness or effort

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16
Q

define effortful processing?

A

effortful processing encoding of information through careful attention and conscious effort.

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17
Q

what is the differences between effortful and automatic processing?

A

1- the encoding process will be disrupted if the individual attempt to do 2 tasks at the same time in effortful processing but the same doesn’t stand true for automatic processing.
2- extra effort doesn’t make the automatic processing more efficient while it does the effortful processing.

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18
Q

what is sensory memory?

A

sensory memory: memory involving a detailed, brief sensory image or sound retained for a brief period of time.

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19
Q

what is the significand’s of George Sperling’s research?

A

Test of sensory memory In his study of the duration of sensory memory, George Sperling flashed a chart of letters, similar to this one, for 1/20 of a second. He found that participants could recall almost all the letters in a particular row if asked to do so immediately, but half a second later, their performance declined.

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20
Q

define the working memory?

A

working memory a short-term memory store that can hold five to nine items at once.

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21
Q

how to make sure the information is encoded into working memory?

A

rehearsal conscious repetition of information in an attempt to make sure the information is encoded.

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22
Q

define long-term memory?

A

long-term memory the memory system in which we hold all of the information we have previously gathered, available for retrieval and use in a new situation or task.

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23
Q

what is spaced practice effect?

A

spaced practice effect facilitated encoding of material through rehearsal situations spread out over time.

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24
Q

define eidetic memories?

A

producing visual images with extraordinary detail and near-perfect accuracy. Although recalling an object or scene that they have just witnessed, these people behave as if they are recalling items while looking at a photograph. Thus their detailed images are called eidetic memories, or photographic memories.

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25
Q

when do we use visual codes?

A

When we encode non-verbal information into long-term memory, we once again tend to use phonological or visual codes

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26
Q

when do we use semantic codes?

A

to encode verbal information into long-term memory, we tend to use semantic codes, representations based on the meaning of information

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27
Q

what is hyperthymestic syndrome?

A

hyperthymestic syndrome (excessive remembering). a group of fewer than 100 people with the same condition have termed highly superior autobiographical memory (HSAM)

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28
Q

define SDAM (severely deficient autobiographical memory)?

A

SDAM is characterized by an inability to distinctly recall autobiographical information in individuals who otherwise perform normally on tests of cognitive functioning, such as attention, perception, working memory, and executive function

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29
Q

what is mnemonic devices?

A

mnemonic devices techniques used to enhance the meaningfulness of information as a way of making them more memorable.

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30
Q

what is schemas?

A

schemas knowledge bases that we develop based on prior exposure to similar experiences or other knowledge bases.

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31
Q

name the organization techniques?

A

1- Chunking
2- organizing a list of unrelated words into a story)
3- create a hierarchy of the information

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32
Q

what is PQRST?

A

The PQRST method is an abbreviation named for its five steps.
( preview skim, Question, Read, self-recitation, test)

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33
Q

explain each section of the PQRST?

A

Preview Skim the entire section you are required to learn. Look for the basic themes and try to get a rough idea of the information you will have to process when reading the section in more detail.

Question Examine the organization of the section and turn each subsection into a question that you want to answer over the course of your reading.

Read Read the section with the goal of finding the answers to your questions.

Self-Recitation Ask yourself and answer aloud a set of questions that arose from the reading material. Work by Colin MacLeod at the University of Waterloo has shown that saying things out loud seems to increase their distinctiveness and make it more likely that they will be remembered later.

Test Test yourself by trying to recall as much of the learned information as you can.

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34
Q

from which sources dose information enters the memory?

A

1- from sensory information
2- long-term memory.

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35
Q

what is temporary scratchpad?

A

because working memory helps us do mental computations, it is often characterized as a temporary scratchpad that briefly retains intermediate information while we think and solve larger problems

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36
Q

who discovered the working memory’s capacity at one particular moment?

A

On average, only five to nine items can be stored there at a given moment. This number was first uncovered back in 1885 by German researcher Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), who pioneered memory research by studying his own memory. Ebbinghaus’s findings were confirmed over 70 years later by psychologist George Miller.

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37
Q

explain the memory span?

A

memory span maximum number of items that can be recalled in the correct order.

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38
Q

what is chunking?

A

chunking grouping bits of information together to enhance ability to hold that information in working memory.

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39
Q

which memory stores do we use while chunking information?

A

In chunking, we use our stored, long-term knowledge that certain letters spell certain words, or that words can be organized to form sentences, to guide us in chunking new information.

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40
Q

what is the difference between implicit and explicit memory?

A

implicit: motor skills
Explicit: past experiences and facts

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41
Q

Explain implicit and explicit memory?

A

explicit memory memory that a person can consciously bring to mind, such as your middle name.

implicit memory memory that a person is not consciously aware of, such as learned motor behaviors, skills, and habits.

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42
Q

how many types of long-term memory do we have?

A

explicit memory: semantic memory, Episodic memory
Implicit: Procedural Memory, Classically conditioned memory, priming

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43
Q

explain Explicit memory and its branches?

A

semantic memory a person’s memory of general knowledge of the world. Ex: apple is red

episodic memory a person’s memory of personal events or episodes from his life. Ex: graduation ceremony

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44
Q

which part of the brain serves as the temporary storage area of the information of explicit memory?

A

Explicit memories are converted into long-term memories in the hippocampus and then are stored permanently in various areas of the neocortex

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45
Q

which region of the brain plays the vital role of storage area for implicit memory?

A

the striatum, the region located toward the midline in the brain, plays a key role in the storage of implicit memories

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46
Q

what will happen if someone damage its striatum?

A

an individual whose striatum is damaged by injury or disease may have enormous difficulty performing longtime skills and habits such as driving, yet retain most of her explicit memories.

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47
Q

who proposed the level of Processing model?

A

Canadian researchers Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart’s Levels of Processing model.

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48
Q

what is the argument of the level of processing model?

A

This model suggests that rather than passing information through distinct types of memory (short- versus long-term), we process information to shallow or deeper depths.
This means that when you are studying, you should read for understanding and for depth of understanding as this will ensure better recall of material on exams

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49
Q

define the Serial position effect?

A

Serial position effect The results of a recall task plotted in the form of a curve yield this classic pattern. That is, the position of a word on a list influences how likely it is that the word will be remembered. Those words in the top third of the list (primacy effect) and the last third of the list (recency effect) are most likely to be recalled.

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50
Q

define the retrieval cues?

A

retrieval cues words, sights, or other stimuli that remind us of the information we need to retrieve from our memory.

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51
Q

define the priming

A

priming activation of one piece of information, which in turn leads to activation of another piece, and ultimately to the retrieval of a specific memory.

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52
Q

what is the difference between recognition and recall tasks?

A

recognition tasks memory tasks in which people are asked to identify whether or not they have seen a particular item before.

recall tasks memory tasks in which people are asked to produce information using no or few retrieval cues.

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53
Q

what is context?

A

context the original location where you first learned a concept or idea, rich with retrieval cues that will make it more likely you will be able to recall that information later if you are in that same location or context.

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54
Q

define encoding specificity principle?

A

encoding specificity principle a theoretical framework that asserts that memory retrieval is more efficient when the information available at retrieval is similar to the information available at the time of encoding.

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55
Q

define state-dependent memory?

A

state-dependent memory memory retrieval facilitated by being in the same state of mind in which you encoded the memory in the first place.

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56
Q

modulation hypothesis?

A

According to the modulation hypothesis, long-lasting emotional effects on memory can be attributed to the activation of the amygdala during the encoding of emotional events. However, this effect takes time, so it cannot account for the immediate effects of emotion on memory

57
Q

define the flashbulb memories?

A

flashbulb memories detailed and near-permanent memories of an emotionally significant event, or of the circumstances surrounding the moment we learned about the event.

58
Q

define the flashbulb memories?

A

flashbulb memories detailed and near-permanent memories of an emotionally significant event, or of the circumstances surrounding the moment we learned about the event.

59
Q

define the forgetting?

A

forgetting the inability to recall information that was previously encoded into memory.

60
Q

What is Decay?

A

decay theory theory of forgetting, suggesting that memories fade over time due to neglect or failure to access over long periods of time.

61
Q

define the interference theory?

A

interference theory theory that forgetting is influenced by what happens to people before or after they take information in.

62
Q

what is retroactive interference?

A

retroactive interference learning of new information that disrupts access to previously recalled information.

63
Q

define the proactive information?

A

proactive interference competing information that is learned before the forgotten material, preventing its subsequent recall.

64
Q

what is the difference between retroactive and proactive interference?

A

Retroactive: New information interferes with the old information.
Proactive: Old information interferes with the new information.

65
Q

what is repression?

A

repression process in which we unconsciously prevent some traumatic events from entering our awareness so that we do not have to experience the anxiety or blows to our self-concept that the memories would bring.

66
Q

what factors contributed in reconstruction of memory?

A

Three of the most common are source misattributions, exposure to misinformation, and the effects of imagination

67
Q

what is source misattributions?

A

source misattribution remembering information, but not the source it came from; can lead to remembering information from unreliable sources as true

68
Q

define the exposure to misinformation?

A

New information that is inaccurate or misleading can distort our recall or lead us to manufacture new memories

69
Q

what is effects of imagination?

A

Our own imagination can lead us to recall events that never took place

70
Q

what is the argument of the connectionist theorists regarding memory?

A

connectionist theorists see memory as a process rather than a place, an activity that involves changes in networks of multiple neurons throughout the brain; network association.

71
Q

what is the functions of hippocampus in memory?

A

hippocampus is important in long-term memory. It converts the explicit memory into long-term memory. stores the memory temporarily and sends to different neocortex regions for long-term storage. it is important in autobiographical memory storage and retrieval as well as spatial layout.

72
Q

what is memory consolidation?

A

memory consolidation process by which memories stabilize in the brain.

73
Q

define potentiation?

A

potentiation synchronous networks of cells firing together.

74
Q

define the long-term potentiation?

A

long-term potentiation (LTP) a phenomenon where repeated stimulation of certain nerve cells in the brain greatly increases the likelihood that the cells will respond strongly to future stimulation.

75
Q

what is the importance of Glutamate in memory formation?

A
  1. Glutamate is used by neuros that exhibit LTP.
  2. very common excitatory neurotransmitter.
  3. a key neurotransmitter in memory formation
  4. commonly located in hippocampus and neocortex (important region for long-term memories).
76
Q

what is the significands of acetylcholine in memory?

A
  1. important in separating the enncoing of new memories and the retrieval of existing memories.
  2. important in consolidation and stabilizing of long-term memory by controlling the sleep/wake cycle.
77
Q

what is infantile amnesia?

A

the inability to remember the event of the first 3 1/2 to 4 years of life.

78
Q

what is the reason for infantile amnesia?

A

the episodic memories (life event) stores in hippocampus. and the inability of the brain to transform the episodic memories from hippocampus to other locations in the neocortex in the early infancy is the reason for infantile amnesia.

79
Q

what is preferential looking?

A

An infant’s interest in something novel (new) in his or her environment is known as “preferential looking.”

80
Q

define prospective memory?

A

prospective memory ability to remember content in the future.

81
Q

define retrospective memory?

A

retrospective memory ability to remember content from the past.

82
Q

name the memory disorder groups?

A
  1. Organic memory disorders: physical causes of memory impairment can be identified.
  2. Dissociative disorders: no clear physical cause for the memory impairment.
83
Q

name the most common type of organic memory disorder?

A

amnestic disorders organic disorders in which memory loss is the primary symptom. and affect both memory and other cognitive functions. and they may experience retrograde and anterograde amnesia.

84
Q

define the retrograde amnesia?

A

retrograde amnesia inability to remember things that occurred before an organic event.

85
Q

what is anterograde amnesia?

A

anterograde amnesia ongoing inability to form new memories after an amnesia-inducing event.

86
Q

what is dementia?

A

dementia (a common type of neurodegeneration disorder) severe memory problems combined with losses in at least one other cognitive function, such as abstract thinking or language.

87
Q

what is Alzheimer?

A

Alzheimer’s disease most common form of dementia, usually beginning with mild memory problems, lapses of attention, and problems in language, and progressing to difficulty with even simple tasks and recall of long-held memories.

88
Q

what is the significant of Alzheimer patients?

A

People with Alzheimer’s disease form far more numbers of neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques than do those without the disease

89
Q

define the neurofibrillary tangles?

A

neurofibrillary tangles twisted protein fibers found within the cells of the hippocampus and certain other brain areas.

90
Q

define the cognition?

A

cognition mental processes of thinking and knowing.

91
Q

define language?

A

language a set of symbols used to communicate.

92
Q

what are the components of the language?

A

language production the structured and conventional expression of thoughts through words.

speech the expression of language through sounds.

93
Q

define vocalization?

A

sound produced to communicate

94
Q

what is language comprehension?

A

language comprehension the process and ability of understanding spoken, written, or signed language.

95
Q

name the language structure?

A

phonology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics.

96
Q

what is phonemes?

A

phoneme the smallest unit of sound in a language; an individual sound such as ba, da, or ta.

97
Q

define the phonology?

A

phonology the study of how individual sounds or phonemes are used to produce language and word.

98
Q

what is morphemes?

A

morpheme the smallest units of a language that convey meaning. ex: jumped, has 2 morphemes: jump and ed.

99
Q

what is semantics?

A

semantics the study of how meaning in language is constructed of individual words and sentences. For example, if we say that it is “raining cats and dogs,” this expression means that it is raining very heavily.

100
Q

define the lexical meaning?

A

lexical meaning dictionary meaning of a word. ex: awful; it used to mean “full of awe,” but now means that something is extremely bad or unpleasant.

101
Q

what is non-lexical sounds?

A

words like hmmmm or ahhhh that require observational experience to understand how and when they are used in social interaction in one’s language community

102
Q

define the syntax?

A

syntax the system for using words (semantics) and word order to convey meaning (grammar).

103
Q

what is pragmatics?

A

pragmatics the practical aspects of language usage, including speech pace, gesturing, and body language.

104
Q

how language develops in babies?

A
  1. Prevocal learning Between 2 and 4 months of age: ability to distinguish the phonemes.
  2. Cooing By about 2 months of age: non-crying vocalization. single phonemes
  3. Babbling By about 6 months: production of meaningless speech sounds like da, da, da
  4. First words By about 1 year: simple words like mama or dada
  5. Telegraphic speech By age 2: 2-word sentences.
  6. Pragmatics By 3 years of age: practical information such as pause.
  7. Grammar By age 4:
105
Q

how did Chomsky described our language learning ability?

A

Chomsky described our early capacity for language learning as working as if we had a sort of language acquisition device built in to our brains.

106
Q

define the critical period?

A

critical period a window of time in development during which certain influences are necessary for appropriate formation of the brain.

107
Q

what is sensitive period?

A

sensitive period a point in development during which the brain is more susceptible to influences.

107
Q

what is sensitive period?

A

sensitive period a point in development during which the brain is more susceptible to influences.

108
Q

what is child-directed speech?

A

child-directed speech: speech characterized by exaggerated emotional responses and a slower pace that is cross-culturally common among caregivers communicating with babies and young children.

109
Q

what is time-worms?

A

time-worms associated with the birth of each word in his son’s vocabulary and focus in detail on the social contexts in which those word births occurred (Deb Roy).

110
Q

define the overregularization?

A

overregularization the process by which elementary school children over-apply newly-learned grammatical rules to improperly “correct” an irregular part of speech, such as a verb (e.g., “goed” instead of “went”).

111
Q

where is the language comprehension center located in the brain?

A

mostly in the left hemisphere but in a small percentage in the right hemisphere. usually, girls uses both hemisphere.

112
Q

Broca’s area?

A

Broca’s area a brain region located in the frontal lobe that is important for speech production.

113
Q

what is Broca’s aphasia?

A

Broca’s aphasia a neurological condition arising from damage to Broca’s area where the patient is unable to produce coherent speech.

114
Q

agrammatism?

A

agrammatism a neurological condition arising from damage to a brain region just anterior to Broca’s area, where the patient is incapable of using words in grammatical sequence. (caused by damage in the Broca’s area)

115
Q

what is the symptoms of the agrammatism?

A
  1. inability to use grammar
  2. inability to understand the grammar
116
Q

what is the role of Wernicke’s area and what is Wernicke’s aphasia?

A

Wernicke’s area a brain region located in the temporal lobe that is important for language comprehension.

Wernicke’s aphasia a neurological condition associated with damage to Wernicke’s area where a person cannot understand language.

117
Q

what is the importance of the amygdala in language comprehension?

A

amygdala, a brain region important for fear and aggression, appears to be involved in the use of profanity

118
Q

what is the consequence of the damage in the right hemisphere?

A

lack of understanding the figurative language and joke/metaphore.

119
Q

what is the impact of reading in activation of the brain regions?

A

Since reading involves eye movements, for example, it recruits a brain region in the frontal lobe called the frontal eye fields.
1. obscenities or disgust word: amygdala
2. words of odor evokers: primary olfactory

120
Q

what is the sensory cross connections of the brain called?

A

embodied cognition

121
Q

what is mental imagery?

A

mental imagery picturing things in your mind.

122
Q

define the linguistic relativity hypothesis?

A

linguistic relativity hypothesis: hypothesis suggesting that the vocabulary available for objects or concepts in a language influences how speakers of that language think about them.

123
Q

what is cognitive control?

A

Cognitive control refers to the ability to direct thought and action in accord with one’s intentions

124
Q

what is executive function?

A

executive function the brain’s ability to control and manage the mental processing of information.

125
Q

what is dysexecutive syndrome?

A

dysexecutive syndrome impairments in the ability to control and direct mental activities. (damage to the frontal lobe).

126
Q

what is a well defined problem?

A

problems with easy to discern beginning and end states.

127
Q

what is ill defined problems?

A

when the goal is difficult to define in precise terms.

128
Q

name the strategies for problem solving?

A
  1. algorithm a problem-solving strategy that always leads to a solution.
  2. heuristic a shortcut thinking strategy.
129
Q

name some of the strategies from heuristic approach that can be effective?

A

working backwards is helpful for well defined goals.
forming subgoals
searching for analogies
insight; eureka

130
Q

what is functional fixedness?

A

functional fixedness tendency to view objects as having only one function.

131
Q

what is representativeness heuristic?

A

representativeness heuristic the assumption that individuals share characteristics of the category of which they are a member.

132
Q

what is availability heuristic?

A

availability heuristic judging easily-recalled events as more common.

133
Q

define bounded rationality?

A

bounded rationality the fact that in many situations, our ability to make clear rational decisions is limited or “bounded” by things like a lack of information, time constraints, or emotions attached to aspects of the problem we are trying to solve.

134
Q

metacognition?

A

metacognition thinking about one’s own thoughts.

135
Q

what is self reflection?

A

a form of metacognition; thinking about own identity.

136
Q

what is theory of mind?

A

theory of mind an awareness of one’s own mental states and the mental states of others.

137
Q

OCD?

A

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) a mental disorder associated with abnormal anxiety-provoking thoughts that can lead to ritualistic behaviors.