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Cognitive Psychology > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is memory?

A

“the faculty by which the mind stores and remembers information.” - Oxford Dictionary

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2
Q

Memory Processes

A

Encoding: transforming information into a form that can be entered and retained in memory

Storage: retaining information in memory so that it can used at a later time

Retrieval: recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it

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3
Q

Multi-Store Model (MODAL) - Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971)

A

Auditory and visual information

Stores:
Sensory Memory
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory

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4
Q

MODAL - Sensory Memory

A

Store of sensory information

Modality specific - one for each sense

Iconic memory for visual information

Echoic memory for auditory information

  • Sperling (1960)
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5
Q

Sensory Memory - Sperling (1960)

A

Task created by George Sperling:
- Letter array shown for 50ms - after it is gone, tone signals which row to report

  • PPs could report 4 letters in partial reports
  • PPs recalled more letters when signalled to recall only one row compared to trying to recall all the letters
  • Iconic memory appears to decay rapidly
  • We can selectively report on the basis of visual properties such as size, colour, brightness or shape
  • But not by category (i.e. numbers only, vowels only) so category info is not represented in the icon
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6
Q

MODAL - Short Term Memory

A

Miller (1965) - Memory Span Test

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7
Q

Miller (1965) - Memory Span Test (STM)

A

Miller suggested there was a limited capacity for ST memory/attention and that this was approx. 7 items

An item can be a digit or a chunk (i.e. a word)

This allows us to remember short sentences of sets of numbers

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8
Q

Short and Long Term Memory Stores

A

Since the conceptualization of the MODAL model, people have argued that LTM and STM differ in various ways, and therefore they are separate stores

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9
Q

Differences in STM and LTM

A

Duration: LTM = Long, STM = Short

Capacity: LTM = Unlimited, STM = Limited

Type of Forgetting: Trace Decat vs. Interference

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10
Q

Forgetting STM

A

Trace Decay:

  • Each item leaves a trace that decays over time so that information is no longer available (letter task and counting backwards)
  • If you keep accessing the trace, it stays active
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11
Q

Forgetting - Interference

A

This suggests memories interfere with each other

We can search our memory, but due to competition end up selecting the wrong memory

We experience a lot, so there is a lot of interference

(While probably a valid explanation for some forgetting, this doesn’t explain most types of it)

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12
Q

Levels of Processing - Craik & Lockhart (1972)

A

Proposed a number of different levels of processing:

  • Shallow/Physical: Detecting specific letters in words; detecting fonts/colours, etc.; detecting sounds (phonemic processing)
  • Deep/Semantic: Recalling facts; creating sentences; associations

Info is memorable based on how deep the level of processing is
Elaborate, long-lasting and strong memory traces are produced by deeper levels of analysis

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13
Q

Limitations of the MODAL model

A

Exaggerates the role of rehearsal

Double dissociation between STM and LTM patients

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14
Q

Multiple Component Views

A

Working Memory - Baddeley & Hitch (1974)

Replaced the concept of the short term memory (Multi-store model)

More than just passive retention of info - memory operates on information too (storage plus processing; a temporary mental workspace)

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15
Q

Working Memory Model - Baddeley & Hitch (1974); Baddeley (2000-2007)

(WMM)

A

Central Executive

Phonological Loop

Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad

Episodic Buffer

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16
Q

Central Executive (WMM)

A

Drives the whole system (e.g. the boss of working memory) and allocates data to the sub-systems

Deals with cognitive tasks, i.e. mental arithmetic and problem solving

The central executive decides what working memory pays attention to

Arguably nothing to do with memory, but more with attention

Limited capacity

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17
Q

Phonological Loop (WMM)

A

Conceptualized as the “inner ear”

Two components:

  • Phonological store - concerned with speech perception
  • Articulatory control processes - concerned with speech production; rehearsal

Phonological similarity effect - Conrad (1964)

Word-length effect - Baddeley et al. (1975, 2002)

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18
Q

Phonological Similarity Effect

A

Conrad (1964)

Recall 25% worse with a phonologically similar list compared to a dissimilar list

Suggests speech-based rehearsal processes within the phonological loop

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19
Q

Word-Length Effect

A

Memory span is lower for words taking a long time to say, based on results from memory span task
- Participants tried to recall as many words as possible in the correct order given a fixed deadline

Baddeley et al. (1975, 2002):

  • Articulatory suppression eliminated the word-length effect
  • Word length effect persists even when output delay is controlled by using a recognition-memory test
  • Suggests that capacity of phonological loop is determined by temporal duration
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20
Q

Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad (WMM)

A

Conceptualized as the “inner eye”

Used in the temporary storage and manipulation of spatial and visual information
- Visual information travels through this sketchpad

Involved in keeping track of where we are in relation to other objects as we move through our environment

Logie (1995)
- Argues there are two components of visuo-spatial working memory: Visual cache and inner scribe

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21
Q

Visual Cache (Logie, 1995)

A

Stores information about visual form and colour

A component of the visuo-spatial sketchpad

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22
Q

Inner Scribe (Logie, 1995)

A

Processes spatial environment information

Involved in rehearsal of information in visual cache

Transfers information from the cache to the central executive

A component of the visuo-spatial sketchpad

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23
Q

Episodic Buffer (WMM)

A

Baddeley (2000-2007)

  • Integrative tool
  • Explains how long-term memory can influence processing in STM

Episodic Buffer - Baddeley & Wilson (2002)
- Limited capacity system
Integrates information from a range of sources
- Acts as an intermediary between the phonological loop and the VSS
- A process of active binding

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24
Q

Limitations of the Episodic Buffer (WMM)

A

Unclear how all different information is integrated

Limited work on smell and taste memory

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25
Q

Long Term Memory

A

Unlimited capacity

Information lost due to interference more than decay

Encoding:

  • Elaborative rehearsal
  • Levels of processing - Semantic is more effective than visual or acoustic processing (Craik & Tulving, 1975)
  • Self-referent effect - by viewing new info as relevant to the self, we consider that info more fully and are able to recall it
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26
Q

LTM - Capacity

A

Unlimited

Supporting evidence:

  • Penfields neural stimulation
  • Permanent storage? - Flashbulb memories (Brown & Kulick, 1977); Assassinations study (Talarico & Rubin, 2003); etc.
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27
Q

Flashbulb Memories

A

Vivid detailed memories that people have of certain dramatic world events (e.g. death of princess Diana, Kennedy assassination)

Brown and Kulick (1977):
- Argued that flashbuld memories are different from other memories in their longevity, accuracy and reliance on a special neural mechanism

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28
Q

Is flashbulb memory just strong LTM?

A

Bohannon (1988) - The Challenger Disaster:

  • 2 weeks later recall was reduced to 77%, by 8 months 58%
  • Decays like normal memory
  • Stored in LTM, especially as it includes a strong emotional cue
  • Amygdala (emotion centre of the brain) is used in laying down LTM

Criticism/Arguments:

  • Conway et al. (1994)
  • Talarico & Rubin (2003)
29
Q

Flashbulb Memory - Conway (1994)

A

Argued that Bohannon’s study did not use an event that people felt impacted on their lives

He looked at the resignation af Margaret Thatcher in 1990

Flashbulb memories present in 86% of British participants compared with only 29% of European participants

Suggests that Bohannon’s findings were due to a lack of emotional attachment to the event

30
Q

Flashbulb Memory - Talarico & Rubin (2003)

A

On the day after the event occurred, they asked 54 students to record their memories of the 9/11 attack, as well as recording a recent everday event

Participants were tested over 1, 6 or 32 weeks

Flashbulb memories decayed the same as everyday memories

Ratings for belief in accuracy, vividness and recollection only declined for the everyday memory

Participants “felt” that the flashbulb memory was stronger

31
Q

Overview of Flashbulb Memory

A

Conway (1994) suggest it depends on:
- Prior knowledge, personal importance, surprise and emotion, and overt rehearsal

Deep levels of processing and elaborative rehearsal can mean that the events surrounding the tradgedy become more salient

32
Q

Elaborative Rehearsal

A

A technique for transferring information into long-term memory by thinking about it in a deeper way

33
Q

Levels of Processing

A

Semantic is more effective than visual or acoustic processing

Craik & Tulving (1975)

34
Q

Self-Referent Effect

A

By viewing new info as relevant to the self, we consider that info more fully and are better able to recal it

35
Q

Types of LTM

A

Explicit/Declaritive memory - Two types of declarative memory:

  • Semantic
  • Episodic

Autobiographical memory

Implicit/Procedural Memory

36
Q

Explicit/Declarative Memory

A

Type of LTM

A memory that requires conscious recollection of information/a memory you can explain

Two types of declarative memory:

  • Semantic
  • Episodic
37
Q

Semantic Memory

A

A type if declarative memory

Do not relate to a particular place or tiem

General encyclopaedic knowledge of the world and language

For example: meaings, relationships, rules, procedures, concepts, etc.

38
Q

Episodic Memory

A

A type of declarative memory

Memories for episodes or events in our lives

For example: First day of school, GCSE results day, etc.

They are all events that occur at a particular place and time
For example, autobiographical memories are episodic memories

39
Q

Autobiographical Memory

A

“Memory for events in ones life”

Similar to episodic memories in that it is about life events

Different to episodic memories - everday events, such as what you had for lunch yesterday, are unlikely to be included as autobiographical memory
- They must include some emotional response

Rubin, Wetzler & Nebes (1986) - Memories across the lifespan

Self Memory System - Conway & Playdell-Pearce (2000)

40
Q

Memories across the lifespan - Rubin, Wetzler & Nebes (1986)

A

Infantile amnesia - lack of memories prior to 3 years old

Reminiscence bump - surprisingly large number of memories coming from between the ages of 10 and 30 when over 40

Retention for memories up to 20 years old with older memories being less likely to be recalled

41
Q

Self Memory System

A

Conway and Pleydell-Pearce (2000)
Tried to narrow down what is special about autobiographical memory and how it might function:

  • Contains an autobiographical knowledge base and the current goals of the working self
  • Autobiographical knowledge contains info about lifetime periods and general events
  • Working self - set of LTM schemas about the self which are in operation at any one time in a similar manner to working memory
42
Q

Implicit/Procedural Memory

A

Non-conscious memory

“…is revealed when performance on a task is facilitated in the absence of conscious recollection” - Graf & Schacter (1985)

“knowing how…”

Refers to learned skills, for example, juggling, riding a bike, walking

These can become automated and require little attention (automaticity)

43
Q

What is retrieval?

A

Process that controls flow of information from long term to working memory store

44
Q

Retrieval - Explicit Memory

A

The types of memory elicited through the conscious retrieval of recollections in response to direct questions

  • Recall tests: subject must reproduce information
  • Free recall: Cued recall
45
Q

Recognition vs. Recall

A

Tip of the tongue phenomenon: Recognising someone’s name is possible even when unable to recall the name - Brown & McNeil (1966)

Number of cues: More cues for recognition tasks

Marginal knowledge - Cantor et al. (2014)
- Can only be retrieved when given an appropriate memory cue

46
Q

Retrieval: Getting information out of a new memory

A

Are memories reconstructions influenced by new information?

Barlett memory research (1932)

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

47
Q

Barlett Memory Research (1932)

A

War of the Ghosts (Serial recall)

Memories shaped to conform to our personal beliefs

Memories recalled are not copies, but reconstructions

48
Q

Tip of the tongue phenomenon

A

A failure in retrieval

Cannot recall the word, but can recall words of a similar form or meaning

Brown and McNeil (1966)

  • Subjects given definitions to low-frequency words
  • Attempt to recall word associated with definition

Recall can be guided by partial word info

49
Q

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

A

PPs watch video of car collisions at different speeds

Asked “How fast were the cars travelling when they ____ into each other?”

Recalled speed influenced by the verb used (i.e. hit, smashed)

Recollection of the visual scene (i.e. broken glass) also affected

50
Q

Context Cues

A

Godden & Baddeley (1975)

Free-recall experiment:

  • Divers learned words from lists in two natural environments: dry land and underwater
  • Words recalled in location of learning, or the alternative

Lists learned underwater are recalled better underwater, and vice versa

51
Q

Lack of encoding (forgetting in LTM)

A

Often, we do not even encode the features necessary to ‘remember’ an object/event (i.e. details on a coin)

Do we forget what we were told, or not encode the information in enough detail?

52
Q

Forgetting in LTM - Decay

A

Memory traces arode with the passage of time

  • Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924):
  • Examined memory recall of non-existing syllables
  • Recall better after sleep
  • Emphasis on ‘interference’ rather than ‘decay’

This is no longer a valid theory of forgetting in LTM

  • Lack of physiological evidence for LTM’s decaying
  • Older memories are not forgotten first
53
Q

Forgetting in LTM - Interference

A

Some memories ‘interfere’ with other memories

Interference is stronger when material is similar

Two types of interference:

1) Proactive interference - Interference when retrieving new memories
2) Retroactive interference - Interference when retrieving old memories

54
Q

Proactive Interference

A

Old memories interfere with ability to remember new memories

For example:
- Knowledge of the boundaries on a tennis court (may forget the boundaries of the court are larger in doubles if you are used to playing singles)

55
Q

Retroactive Interference

A

New memories interfere with ability to remember old memories

56
Q

Amnesia

A

A lot of our early knowledge about memory comes from patient case studies, such as H.M. or Clive Wearing

57
Q

Amnesia Case Study - H.M.

A

Milner, Corkin and Teuber (1968)

Became amnesic in 1953 following a bilateral removal in the hippocampal zone (failed attempt at curing his epilepsy)

  • Can remember childhood events (Scoville & Milner, 1957)
  • Memory generally poor for events after the operation

“everyday is alone in itself, whatever enjoyment I’ve had, whatever sorrow I’ve had” (p. 217) - Milner, Corkin & Teuber (1968)

58
Q

Amnesia Example - Clive Wearing

A

British musician and conductor

Acute and long-lasting case of anterograde and retrograde amnesia
- This means he lacks both the ability to form new memories and to recall some aspects of his past memories

Herpes virus attacked CNS damaging his hippocampus

He “wakes up” every 20 sec. and has no knowledge of ever learning music, but he can still play pian

59
Q

Amnesia - Korsakoff Syndrome

A

This has been studied a lot

Alcohol related problem in metabolizing the vitamin thiamine, which leads to brain damage in areas of the hippocampus and diencephalon, resulting in loss of episodic memory

But, the amnesia from Korsakoffs is “less pure” as there is also subtle damage to other areas including frontal lobes - Cermak (1976)

Gradual onset and more widespread damage makes it harder to interpret findings

60
Q

Limitations of Korsakoff patients in studying amnesia

A

Gradual onset

Widespread brain damage

Inconsistent in which areas of the brain are affected

Brain plasticity

61
Q

Types of Amnesia

A

Retrograde amnesia

Anterograded amnesia

62
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

Particularly affects episodic memories compared with semantic memories - Spiers et al. (2001)

Usually associated with damage to cortical and noecortical structures

Inability to recall information/events from before the critical incident

Often can occur with anterograde amnesia

Retrograde amnesia without anterograde amnesia is called Focal Retrograde Amnesia

Seems to be a problem in retrieval of information

Assessment is difficult - what questions can we ask to test this?

Less work on this as it is less common

Kapur, Young, Bateman & Kennedy (1989)

Russell (1935)

Temporal gradient of amnesia = Ribots’s law

63
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

Problem with consolidation of memories - Isaac & Mayes (1999)

Could be caused by damage to subcortical areas

64
Q

Kapur, Young, Bateman & Kennedy (1989) - Retrograde amnesia

A

Patient (E.D.) examined 5 years after diagnosis of retrograde amnesia

Selective deficit for public figures/events in the past 20-30 years (but fine on famous cars)

No anterograde amnesia

EEG - Temporal lobe abnormality
No structural lesion or dementia

65
Q

Russell (1935) - Retrograde amnesia

A

Shrinking retrograde amnesia

Older memories return before more recent ones (See consolidation)

66
Q

Ribot’s law

A

Temporal gradient of amnesia = Ribot’s law

Ribot’s law states that recent memories are more likely to be lost than the more remote memories

This is the typical finding for retrograde amnesia

Butters and Cermak (1986)

67
Q

Butters and Cermak (1986) - Ribot’s law

A

PZ - experimental psychologist, completed memoirs before contracting Korsakoff

Memoirs enabled estimation of events and of how long he had known people

The earlier the info had occurred, the better recall he had from it

68
Q

Retrograde Amnesia and Consolidation

A

The temporal gradient of retrograde amnesia and the link to hippocampus damage led to theories about how memories might be consolidated

Consolidation:

  • Is this process in the brain that makes the memory for an event enduring
  • It refers to the process of info being transferred from one region of the brain to another and gradual re-organisation of brain regions to support memory
  • Maybe recent memories (before incident) are less consolidated
69
Q

Models of Consolidation (amnesia)

A

A number of models (including the Standard Model by Squire, Cohen and Nadel, 1984)

All argue that retrograde amnesia is due to problems with consolidation

2 broad processes:

  • Hippocampal consolidation
  • Systems consolidation

The central idea is that LTM are stored in the cortex (outer layer of the brain) via some form of trace

Forming the trace takes time as different cortical sites cannot initially communicate

The hippocampus acts as a temporary memory and also then facilitates communication between different sites in the cortex to enable a cortical trace to be established that supports the memory

The interaction between the hippocampus and (neo)cortical regions is therefore crucial in supporting the formation of memories

Continued activation (offline or through rehearsal) of these memories graduall enables these different cortical sites to communicate

The process of consolidation then continues in cortical areas, but the hippocampus is no longer needed - Ribot’s law

Cognitive Psychology (4 decks)

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