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PSYCHOLOGY social influence/memory > memory > Flashcards

memory Flashcards

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1
Q

what is cognitive psychology

A

people’s thought processes and how these affect the way they behave

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2
Q

define memory

A

the process of retaining learned information, and accessing this when needed

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3
Q

what are the 3 processes in memory

A
  1. coding
  2. storage
  3. retrieval
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4
Q

what are the 3 memory stores

A
  1. sensory register
  2. short-term memory
  3. long-term memory
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5
Q

sensory register

A

short duration store retaining unprocessed impressions of information received through senses (separate store for each sense)

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6
Q

what are the 2 stores in the SR

A

iconic store = visual information

echoic store = auditory information

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7
Q

short-term memory

A

temporary store for information received by SR

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8
Q

long-term memory

A

permanent store holding limitless information for long time periods (potentially lifetime)

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9
Q

define capacity

A

the amount of information that can be held in memory before new incoming information displaces it

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10
Q

define duration

A

the amount of time information can be held in a memory store before it is lost due to decay

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11
Q

capacity, duration and coding for STM

A

7+/-2

18-30 seconds

acoustic

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12
Q

capacity, duration and coding for LTM

A

unlimited

potentially forever

semantic

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13
Q

STM coding experiment

A

participants given 4 lists of words
(List A= similar sounding words, List B= dissimilar sounding words, List C= synonyms, List D= words with dissimilar meanings)

participants worse with list A than B but no difference between C and D.

Therefore STM is coded acoustically

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14
Q

LTM coding experiment

A

same lists as STM
tested recall after 20 minutes

recall of list C was worse than D but no difference between A and B

therefore LTM is coded semantically

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15
Q

STM capacity experiment

A

digit span test (several sequences of letters or digits and asked to repeat them immediately after said in the right order. got longer by one item each time)

STM capacity = 7+/- 2
new information displaces old information

chunking helps remember more

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16
Q

STM duration experiment

A

nonsense trigram’s (random 3 consonants)
to prevent rehearsal they asked candidates to count back from 100 is threes

after 3 secs = 90% recall
after 9 secs = 20% recall
after 18 secs = 2% recall

information lasts for 18-30 seconds in STM without rehearsal before decaying

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17
Q

LTM duration experiment

A

tested 400 people of various ages on memory of classmates

  • photo recognition test of 50 photos and they had to choose if they belonged to classmates or not
  • in free recall test had to list names they could remember

identifying faces within 15 years = 90% accuracy
after 48 years = 70% accuracy
free recall within 15 years = 60% accuracy
after 48 years = 30% accuracy

LTM is potentially lifetime but have retrieval failure and need retrieval cues to access information

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18
Q

what is the multi-store model of memory

A

Attempts to explain how information flows from one memory store to another. There are 3 permanent structures:
SR
STM
LTM
Each differ in terms of capacity, duration, coding and how information is lost from them

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19
Q

sensory register in MSM

A

environmental input enters the SR though senses

capacity = large
duration = very brief

Small fraction of information is attended to and selected for further processing in STM. If not it is lost to decay.

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20
Q

STM in MSM

A

attended information from SR is acoustically coded into STM
capacity = 7+/- 2 pieces of information
duration = 18-30 seconds
without rehearsal information decays very quickly
kept in STM by maintenance rehearsal or elaborative rehearsal then transferred to LTM

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21
Q

what are the 2 types of rehearsal

A
  • maintenance rehearsal (repeatedly verbalising or thinking about information)
  • elaborative rehearsal (information is organised in meaningful way)
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22
Q

LTM in MSM

A

if information is sufficiently rehearsed in STM it is semantically coded into LTM.
capacity = potentially infinite
duration = potentially lifetime

when information is needed it is retrieval by STM an then recalled.

sometimes retrieval failure occurs and retrieval cues are needed

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23
Q

Positive evaluation of MSM (Neurobiological Evidence) (2)

A

+ HM (tried to treat HM’s epilepsy by removing parts of brain including hippocampus. unable to code new LTM but STM was unaffected. so separate, distinct stores)
+KF (had motorbike accident resulting in reduced STM capacity (1/2 digits) but LTM was normal. so separate stores)

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24
Q

Negative evaluation of MSM (Neurobiological Evidence) (2)

A
  • more than one type of STM (KF had poor STM for verbal not visual tasks)
  • retrieval (KF could access LTM without difficulty but MSM states you need STM to access LTM)
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25
Q

Positive evaluation of MSM (Laboratory experiments) (1)

A

+free recall experiment

Serial position effect = words at beginning/end recalled better
primacy effect = words at start constantly rehearsed and transferred to LTM
recency effect = words at end are still in STM

separate and distinct STM and LTM

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26
Q

Positive evaluation of MSM (1)

A

+ influential (sparked lots of research and paved the way for other models such as WMM leading to better understanding of memory)

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27
Q

Negative evaluation of MSM (2)

A
  • simplified (assumes only one type of STM and LTM but research has shown there are several types (e.g. verbal and non-verbal for STM))
  • multi-tasking (doesn’t explain the ability to multi-task as if only one type of STM it wouldn’t be possible)
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28
Q

what does the central executive do (WMM)

A
  • allocate data to other components (slave systems)
  • deals with cognitive tasks (problem solving/mental arithmetic)
  • automated tasks make less attentional demands on central executive and leave us free to perform other tasks
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29
Q

what are the 2 components of the phonological loop

A
  • phonological store = linked to speech perception and holds info in speech-based form for 1-2 secs (inner ear)
  • articulary loop = linked to speech production and rehearses/stores verbal information from phonological store (inner voice)
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30
Q

what does the visuo-spatial sketchpad do

A
  • stores and processes information in a visual or spatial form
  • used for navigation
  • inner eye
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31
Q

what are the 2 sub-components of the visuo-spatial sketchpad

A
  • visual cache = visual material about form and colour

- inner scribe = spatial relationships

32
Q

what is the episodic buffer

A
  • general storage component
  • limited capacity store, integrating information from central executive, phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad as well as LTM
33
Q

positive evaluation of WMM (neurobiological evidence) (1)

A

+KF (poor STM for verbal words not visual and WMM shows that we have phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad)

34
Q

positive evaluation of WMM (lab experiments) (2)

A

+dual task (had to do reasoning task (central executive) at the same time as reading aloud (phonological loop) and both were done well simultaneously so separate components)
+ short/long words (visual lists of long/short words and had to recall immediately in correct order. recalled short words better. so supports that phonological loop can hold items that can be said in 1.5-2 secs)

35
Q

positive evaluation of WMM (1)

A

+practical applications (understanding of how people learn to read and assist dyslexic people)

36
Q

negative evaluation of WMM (2)

A
  • senses (doesn’t explain how we deal with info from smell and touch)
  • simplistic and vague (case of EVR who had cerebral tumour removed had good reasoning skills but couldn’t make decisions, so central executive worked and didn’t so it is more complicated)
37
Q

episodic memory

A
  • recall of life events

- stored in hippocampus

38
Q

3 elements of episodic memory

A
  • specific details of events
  • context of event
  • emotions at the time of event
39
Q

semantic memory

A
  • factual knowledge of the world
  • may relate to functions of objects, appropriate behaviour and abstract concepts
  • generally start as episodic memories
  • stored in the temporal lobes
40
Q

procedural memory

A
  • muscle memory
  • concerned with motor skills/actions
  • required to practice and repetition (more resistant to forgetting)
  • automatic and unavailable conscious inspection
  • stored in the cerebellum
41
Q

positive evaluation of long-term memory(4)

A

+brain scans (shows that the different parts of the brain are activated when accessing certain memories so separate and distinct)
+HM (form new procedural memories but not episodic as hippocampus was destroyed
+Alzheimer’s (can form episodic memories but not semantic)
+Alzheimer’s (can form semantic but not episodic)

42
Q

negative evaluation of long-term memory(2)

A
  • implicit memories (influence behaviour and responses. priming is controlled by a separate brain system so there is a fourth type of memory: Perceptual-representation system)
  • amnesia (procedural and perceptual representation system intact but no episodic and semantic memories so we have four types of LTM)
43
Q

Define forgetting

A

A persons loss of ability to recall or recognise something that they have previously learned

44
Q

what is the interference theory

A
  • claims that forgetting occurs when two lots of memory become confused
  • More likely when information is similar
  • less likely when there is a gap between instances of learning
45
Q

What is retroactive interference

A

New learning affects the recall of old information

46
Q

what is proactive interference

A

Old learning affects the recall of new information

47
Q

positive evaluation of interference (2)

A

proactive interference
+lists of words (when learning lists, recall of words earlier on is better. 10+ lists = 20% recall the next day. 1 list = 70% recall)
retroactive interference
+lists of words (list 100% learnt. then given new list of either synonyms, antonyms, nonsense syllables, three digit numbers, no list. asked to remember original. best recall = no list and worst recall =synonyms)

48
Q

negative evaluation of interference(1)

A

-retrieval failure (divers given words to learn underwater and on land. words learnt were recalled better in same context)

49
Q

what does the retrieval failure theory state

A
  • people forget information due to insufficient cues
  • when information is placed in memory, data associated is stored at the same time. If these cues are not available at recall then that information may be hard to access
50
Q

What is the encoding specificity principal

A
  • if a cue is to help recall information, it has to be present at coding and retrieval or forgetting will occur
  • some are linked to information in meaningful ways
  • others coded at the same time of learning
51
Q

What is context dependent forgetting

A
  • Physical environment acts as a cue

- recall information better in the same environment you learned it

52
Q

What is state dependent forgetting

A
  • Physiological state can affect recall

- Recall is facilitated if people have a similar physiological state at record and coding

53
Q

positive evaluation of retrieval failure theory (2)

A

context-dependent
+ instructors and tests (tested recall with mixture of familiar/unfamiliar instructors and teaching rooms. Participants tested by familiar instructor in familiar room = best)
state-dependent
+ cannabis (participants who hid money in warehouse when under influence of cannabis were more likely to recall hiding place in same state)

54
Q

negative evaluation of retrieval failure theory(1)

A

-weak influence (in real life we recall things in different contexts to where we learnt it)

55
Q

what is eyewitness testimony

A
  • evidence supplied to court by people who have seen a crime based on the memory of an incident
  • Juries are often heavily influenced by eyewitnesses
56
Q

What is a leading question

A

Questions are phrased in such a way as to lead a witness to give a certain answer

57
Q

what is the response bias exclamation

A

Leading questions do not affect memory, merely the answer a person chooses to give

58
Q

What is the substitution bias explanation

A

Leading questions distort memories because they contain misleading information

59
Q

what is the loftus and palmer experiment (leading questions)

A
  • show 45 american students a film of a a car crash
  • asked to estimate speed of car
  • different verbs used (Contacted, hit, bumped, collided, smashed)
  • ‘contacted’ = 31mph and ‘smashed’ = 41mph
  • asked if there was broken glass a week after
  • control = 12% yes and ‘smashed’=32% yes
60
Q

What is post- event discussion

A

Memory of an event can be contaminated to discussing events with others
A desire for social approval can lead to witnesses to reach a consensus view of what happened

61
Q

Post event discussion experiment

A
  • Participants put in pairs and watch different videos of the same event (unique details)
  • in one condition they were told to discuss the event before recall and in the other they weren’t
  • who discussed = 71% recalled details they couldn’t have seen themselves
62
Q

Positive evaluation of misleading information(3)

A

+headlight (shown video of car accident and asked 20 minutes later if they saw ‘a’ broken headlight or ‘the’ broken headlight. 7% in ‘a’ and 17% in ‘the’)
+barn (17% who watched a car drive film and were asked ‘how fast cars were going past the white barn’ reported seeing a white barn a week later when there was none)
+Disneyland (college students asked to evaluate advertising material which contained misleading information about Bugs Bunny or Arial. Many claimed they saw them as a child which wasn’t possible)

63
Q

negative evaluation of misleading information (2)

A
  • real life (greater accuracy in real life than lab. witnesses of armed robbery gave accurate reports 4 months later even when asked 2 misleading questions)
  • importance of answers (may not be influenced by questions when they know importance of answers. if participants thought they were watching a real robbery and answer would affect trial, their identification was more accurate)
64
Q

what is anxiety

A

state of apprehension, uncertainty and fear resulting from a threatening situation
can impair physical and psychological functioning

65
Q

how does anxiety affect EWT

A
  • prevent accurate and detailed recall

- people observing violent crime pay more attention to the aspect which is a threat (eg a weapon)

66
Q

what is the weapon focus effect

A

witnesses who see violent crime involving a weapon can often describe the weapon in great detail but can’t remember much about criminal

67
Q

how did Loftus carry out the anxiety experiment

A
  • experimental condition = participants hear heated and hostile argument, sounds of furniture being overturned, glass breaking and man emerges carrying letter opener covered in blood
  • control condition = overheard conversation about laboratory equipment failure and man with grease over hands emerges carrying a pen
68
Q

results from anxiety experiment

A 
33% = in experimental condition recognised photo of person carrying bloody letter opener
49% = control condition recognised person carrying the pen

people in experimental focused on letter opener more as it could be a threatening weapon

69
Q

positive evaluation of anxiety (2)

A

+cashier (participants watched a film where person pointed gun at cashier and got money and person gave cheque to cashier for money. in gun condition, had poorer recall but could describe gun accurately)
+violent film (one group watched violent film of boy being shot and other watched a non-violent crime. participants who saw gun film had less accurate recall)

70
Q

negative evaluation of anxiety(4)

A
  • bank robberies (survey of 110 people who witnessed bank robberies. victims subjected to most anxiety had most accurate recall)
  • surprise (identification of thief was lowest in high surprise conditions than high anxiety)
  • meta-analysis (300 line-up identifications found that presence of weapon had no effect on probability of correct identification)
  • individual differences (‘neurotic’ individual had less accurate memory when anxious but ‘stable’ had better memory when anxious)
71
Q

what is the standard interview

A
  • brief, direct, fact-based and closed questions

- witnesses often interrupted and not allowed to expand

72
Q

4 stages of cognitive interview

A
  1. context reinstatement (act as retrieval cues)
  2. report everything (may trigger memory)
  3. recall from changed perspective (promotes more holistic view, enhancing recall)
  4. recall in reverse order (verify accuracy of account)
73
Q

guidelines for police interviews

A
  • encourage to relax and speak slowly
  • offer comments to help clarify statements
  • minimise distractions
  • actively listen
  • open-ended questions
  • pause after each response
  • avoid interruptions
  • adapt language
  • avoid judgemental comments
74
Q

positive evaluation of the cognitive interview (3)

A

+stimulated crime (video shown of stimulated crime and recall tested with cognitive interview, standard interview and hypnosis. cognitive lead to best recall)
+Miami officers (trained to use enhanced cognitive interview. 46% increase in info witness gave and 90% was accurate)
+comparison to standard showed it led to more facts being recalled

75
Q

negative evaluation of the cognitive interview (3)

A
  • produced more incorrect info than standard interview
  • police were reluctant to use it as they thought change of perspective mislead people. all 4 used singly produced more information but context reinstatement with report everything was most effective)
  • time consuming to implement

PSYCHOLOGY social influence/memory (2 decks)

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