Memory

Question 1

Outline the Multistore Model of Memory

A01

Answer 1

The multistore model of memory (MSM) consists of 3 different stores: sensory register, STM and LTM.

This model was created by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) and describes the process of memory in terms of information being passed through a system.

Information from the environment is detected by the sense organs and enters the sensory register, e.g. hearing a loud noise. If this information is paid attention to, it enters the STM. This information should stay in the STM if rehearsed for maintenance, for 0-18 seconds. If the rehearsal is elaborative, the information transfers to the LTM in which the capacity and duration is unlimited.

However, if rehearsal does not occur in any moment of the stores, information is either forgotten or lost from the STM from decay or displacement.

Question 2

Evaluate the Multistore model of memory
SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
A03

Answer 2

One strength of the MSM is that there is supporting evidence. The serial position effect study involved participants that were read a list of 21 words which they would recall immediately afterwards. The findings showed a serial position curve, sometimes referred to as the primacy/recency effect. The primacy effect is where the words at the beginning were well recalled (rehearsed and transferred to the LTM). The recency effect shows the better recall of words at the end of the list (still in STM). This provides evidence for the existence of 2 separate stores, STM and LTM.

Question 3

Evaluate the Multistore model of memory
CRITIQUE
A03

Answer 3

However, there are many criticisms of this evidence. Many of the studies supporting the MSM use lab experiments which are artificially constructed. Few people attempt to memorise a list of unconnected words in real life. Due to the artificial nature of the experiments the findings may be difficult to generalise to real life. These experiments therefore lack ecological validity and are subject to demand characteristics.

Question 4

Evaluate the Multistore model of memory
OPPOSING RESEARCH
A03

Answer 4

Criticism of the MSM also comes from opposing research. Some words from the middle of the list in the serial position study were well remembered, e.g. cake and knife. The MSM predicts words in the middle would not be remembered (due to displacement). The opposing evidence shows that we remember information that is relevant or meaningful to us which cannot be explained by the MSM.

Question 5

What are the 3 characteristics of the stores in the MSM

Answer 5

Encoding is the way information is changed so that it can be stored in the memory. There are three main ways in which information can be encoded (changed): 1. visual (picture), 2. acoustic (sound), 3. semantic (meaning).

Capacity concerns how much information can be stored.

Duration refers to the period of time information can last in the memory stores.

Question 6

Outline the sensory register

Answer 6

• Duration: ¼ to ½ second
• Capacity: all sensory experience (v. larger capacity)
• Encoding: sense specific (e.g. different stores for each sense)

Question 7

Outline the STM

Answer 7

• Duration: 0-18 seconds
• Capacity: 7 +/- 2 items
• Encoding: mainly acoustic

Question 8

Outline the LTM

Answer 8

• Duration: Unlimited
• Capacity: Unlimited
• Encoding: Mainly semantic (but can be visual and acoustic)

Question 9

Outline the Working Memory Model

A01

Answer 9

The working memory model (WMM) has 3 separate components; central executive (CE), phonological loop (PL) and visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS).

The WMM refers to a system for the short-term maintenance and manipulation of information developed by Baddley and Hitch (1974).

The CE is responsible for allocating processing resources to the two sub-systems. It is the most important component of working memory and its dysfunction is often implicated in many neurological disorders.

The PL is auditory STM. It is a loop because it can store and repeat sound (inner voice) for a limited period of 20-30 seconds. It has 2 sub components itself, the phonological store and articulatory process. The phonological store is our inner ear and contains snippets of sound from the outside world or recalled from LTM. The articulatory process is the inner voice inside our head - allows for multitasking e.g. mathematics.

VSS is visual STM, or inner eye. It can manipulate images in 2D and 3D. It has 2 sub components itself, a visual component and spatial component. The visual component deals with objects and features such as shape and colour. The spatial component deals with locations and movements in space.

Question 10

Evaluate the WMM
SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
A03

Answer 10

There is supporting evidence for the WMM. The WMM is supported by evidence of brain scanning studies. When STM tasks are given that use the different temporary stores scans show verbal memories appear to be located in the left hemisphere of the brain whereas spatial memory is located in the right hemisphere. This provides evidence for the existence of physically separate stores of verbal and visual memory increasing its validity.

Question 11

Evaluate the WMM
CRITIQUE
A03

Answer 11

A limitation of dual/concurrent task studies is that they were often conducted in controlled environments such as labs. This results in biased results as participants try harder as they know they are being tested. This bias is known as demand characteristics. This bias can confound the results making identifying the cause and effect difficult. This means that the findings cannot be generalised to real-life situations involving the working memory due to these biases and the artificial nature of the studies.

Question 12

Evaluate the WMM
APPLICATIONS
A03

Answer 12

One strength of the WMM is that there are applications to real life. The WMM helps to explain why some children have problems with language development. Some studies show that some children have limited PL capacity meaning they struggle to learn a new language as they can’t memorise new words. Speech therapists can teach children games which forces the PL capacity to increase allowing room to rehearse and learn new information improving a child’s language development.

Question 13

Outline the Central executive

Answer 13

The CE is responsible for allocating processing resources to the two sub-systems. It is the most important component of working memory and its dysfunction is often implicated in many neurological disorders.

Question 14

Outline the Phonological loop

Answer 14

The PL is auditory STM. It is a loop because it can store and repeat sound (inner voice) for a limited period of 20-30 seconds. It has 2 sub components itself, the phonological store and articulatory process. The phonological store is our inner ear and contains snippets of sound from the outside world or recalled from LTM. The articulatory process is the inner voice inside our head - allows for multitasking e.g. mathematics.

Question 15

Outline the Visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 15

VSS is visual STM, or inner eye. It can manipulate images in 2D and 3D. It has 2 sub components itself, a visual component and spatial component. The visual component deals with objects and features such as shape and colour. The spatial component deals with locations and movements in space.

Question 16

Outline the Episodic buffer

Answer 16

Episodic buffer acts as a ‘backup’ (temporary) store for information which communicates with both long term memory and the slave system components of working memory.

Question 17

Describe the types of LTM

A01

Answer 17

Tulving (1985) proposed that there are 3 LTM stores, containing quite different types of information. He called them episodic memory, semantic memory and procedural memory.

The episodic memory is a store for personal events. It includes memories of when the events occurred and of the people, objects, places and behaviours involved. Memories from this store have to be retrieved consciously and with effort. For example, a memory of the last visit to the dentist, you remember the events before, during and after the appointment.

The semantic memory is a store for our knowledge of the world. This includes facts and our knowledge of what words and concepts mean. These memories usually need to be recalled deliberately. It contains an immense collection of material which, given its nature, is constantly being added to. For example, your knowledge of how an orange tastes.

The procedural memory is a store for our knowledge of how to do things. This includes our memories of learned skills. We usually recall these memories without making a conscious or deliberate effort. For example, driving a car, with experience we can change gears without recalling how to do so.

Question 18

Evaluate the types of LTM
SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
A03

Answer 18

Supporting evidence comes from brain scan studies that show that different types of memory are stored in different parts of the brain. For example, Tulving (1994) got his participants to perform memory tasks while they had radioactive glucose in their blood and the brain was scanned for active areas using a PET scanner. The findings showed that the episodic and semantic memories were recalled from the area of the brain known as the prefrontal cortex. This area is divided into the two hemispheres of the brain. Semantic memories were recalled from the left hemisphere whilst the episodic memories were recalled from the right hemisphere. The strength of this finding is that it supports the view that there is a physical separation of memory types in the LTM store.

Question 19

Evaluate the types of LTM
CRITIQUE
A03

Answer 19

A limitation of using case studies such as HM as evidence is that his condition is unique. HM suffered from epilepsy and had his hippocampus removed, this case is extremely rare. This means that we must be cautious when generalising to the rest of the population. However, the case studies are very detailed, HM was studied for over 60 years allowing researchers to build up a detailed knowledge of his LTM. This has even helped researchers to understand how memory is supposed to work normally.

Question 20

Evaluate the types of LTM
APPLICATIONS
A03

Answer 20

Psychologists have developed theories to help them with neurological disorders in order to better people’s lives. Dementia involves episodic memory loss. Studies show that reminiscent therapy can be used to decrease memory loss of episodic memories by using triggers such as photos or diaries. This shows that effective therapy targets specific memory stores.

Question 21

Evidence for the separate stores - HM case study

Answer 21

HM had his hippocampus removed to clam his epilepsy. Episodic memory was severely impaired as a consequence of amnesia. He had difficulty recalling events that happened to him in the past. Hi semantic memory however was relatively unaffected, he could understand the meaning of words. His procedural memory was also intact.

HM was tested 10 times over 3 days by psychologists He was asked to follow the outline of a star between two mirrors. Each time HM participated he had forgotten about the test but got progressively better and could complete the star easily by the tenth test. This is evidence that there are separate stores in the LTM as he was able to do this task due to his procedural memory being intact.

This evidence supports Tulving’s view that there are different memory stores. One store can be damaged but the other stores are unaffected. This is clear evidence that these types of memory are different, but they are stored in different parts of the brain.

Question 22

Describe interference theory as an explanation of forgetting

A01

Answer 22

Interference theory argues that forgetting occurs due to 2 memories competing and being affected by past memories or possible future learning.

The more similar the memories the more interference is caused as the 2 memories disrupt one another. For example, you recall an incident at one of your birthday parties but cannot remember whether it was your 7th or 8th birthday party as they both took place in a village hall (same environment).

There are 2 types of interference: proactive and retroactive interference.

Proactive interference occurs forward in time where encoding of new memories is interfered with past memories. For example, recalling your old mobile number while trying to remember your new one.

Retroactive interference occurs backwards in time where the coding of a new memory disrupts previously stored information. For example, forgetting your old mobile number whilst learning your new mobile number. The new memory therefore affects recall of old memory.

Question 23

Evaluate interference theory as an explanation of forgetting
SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
A03

Answer 23

One strength of interference theory is that there is supporting evidence both in lab and field studies. A lab study involving 2 groups of participants (group 1 and group 2) were tested with remembering a list of unconnected words (list A). Group one then rested while group 2 were tasked with learning a new list of words (list B). The ability to recall words on list A was poorer when participants learned both lists (group 2) due to retroactive interference. Similarly, Baddley and Hitch (1977) found that rugby players who had played in the majority of games in the season had a poorer recollection of early games in the season than players who had played little games (through injury). Interference can be replicated in different settings which increases the validity of the theory as an explanation of forgetting.

Question 24

Evaluate interference theory as an explanation of forgetting
CRITIQUE
A03

Answer 24

One limitation of the theory is that there are criticising of both lab and field studies. Lab studies are conducted in artificial environments and tested participants with a list of unconnected words which is dissimilar to how we memorise information in real life. Field studies are more natural meaning it is difficult to control extraneous variables that may have confounded the results. Participant variables such as a better memory can explain why forgetting occurred and not interference. So, both study types are needed in order to make sound conclusions on the effect of interference in memories.

Question 25

Evaluate interference theory as an explanation of forgetting
OPPOSING POINT
A03

Answer 25

An opposing argument is that interference is an internal mental process. This means that interference cannot be directly measured. So, we can’t be sure of the cognitive processes that occur during interference. This reduces the credibility of the theory of interference.

Question 26

Describe retrieval failure as explanation of forgetting

A01

Answer 26

Retrieval failure argues that forgetting from the LTM is caused by the failure to access the memories due to insufficient cues to aid recall rather than it being unavailable.

Similar to a labelling or filing system, the cues act as markers to aid recall and without these, the mind is unable to locate memories.

A cues effectiveness depends on the number of items associated with it, with fewer items leading to a more efficient cue.

Tulving suggested that memory recall is most effective when information which was present at the time of encoding is available during retrieval.

There are 2 main types of cues: dependant forgetting- context dependant failure and state dependant failure.

It may be harder to recall the memory in a different setting due to an absence of context cues.

Question 27

Evaluate retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting
SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
A03

Answer 27

Supporting evidence comes from studies using word lists. Participants learnt lists of words in groups with headings. There was more forgetting in the group who learned the list without headings due to lack of retrieval cues. In Baddley’s (1973) divers study the divers were tasked with learning material either on land or underwater. Participants who learned and recalled in the same environment performed 40% better than those who learned and recalled in separate conditions as they forgot more due to a lack of retrieval cues.

Question 28

Evaluate retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting
CRITIQUE
A03

Answer 28

One limitation of retrieval failure theory is that the studies involved have been criticised for the use of artificial stimuli. Participants learnt a list of unconnected words. In real life we learn meaningful or relevant information. For example, shopping lists or revision notes. This means that we can’t be sure retrieval cues operate in real life situations involving memory and forgetting so lacks ecological validity.

Question 29

Evaluate retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting
OPPOSING EVIDENCE
A03

Answer 29

Alternative research shows that we don’t have to be in the same physical environment to benefit from context cues. Jerabek and Stanhing (1992) demonstrated the beneficial effect of contextual information can also occur when people simply imagine the context in which the learning took place. this confirms the findings of an earlier study (Smith 1979), who found that imagining the same room in which material was learned resulted in performances similar to those who had actually been in the same room. For example, in an exam hall and memorise the classroom in which you wrote the answer down on a whiteboard.

Question 30

Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (EWT)

A01

Answer 30

One factor affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (EWT) is misleading information. The LTM is fluid and able to change - it is influenced by new information.

One way in which misleading information can occur is through leading questions. The way the questions are phrased can influence the recall of events for eyewitnesses. For example, ‘was the knife in the accused’s left hand?’. This suggests the answer is ‘left hand’.

Evidence of this can be seen in Loftus’ research (1974). In this study, participants watched film clips of car accidents and were then given questions on the accident to answer. In the critical question (leading questioned) participants were asked to describe how fast the car was going. There were 5 groups of participants, each were given a different verb in the leading question. One group had the verb ‘hit’, the others had ‘contacted’, ‘bumped’, ‘collided’ and ‘smashed’. The mean estimated speed was calculated for each participant group. Loftus found that the word ‘contacted’ resulted in a mean estimated speed of 31.8mph but the verb ‘smashed’ had a mean estimated speed of 40.8mph. Loftus concluded that the words used in the leading question influenced participants’ memory of other details, e.g. recalled broken glass if verb was ‘smashed’ even though there was none.

Another way in which misleading information can occur is through post-event discussions. After an event where eyewitnesses discuss what happened; their memory is influenced by the recall of other witnesses. This is due to ISI and NSI which equals memory conformity.

Evidence of this can be seen in Gabbert’s research (2003). Gabbert and her colleagues studied participants in pairs. Each participant watched a video of the same crime, but filmed form different points of view. This meant that each participant could see elements in the video the other pair couldn’t. Both participants then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a test of recall. Gabbert found that 71% of participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event they did not see in the video but had picked up in discussion. They concluded that this is strong evidence for the effect of post-event discussions on reducing the accuracy of recall in EWT.

Question 31

Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (EWT)
EVALUATION - CRITIQUE
A03

Answer 31

Evidence for misleading information on the accuracy of recall in EWT comes from lab studies. This is a strength because it takes place in a controlled environment, e.g. the event witnessed (film). Lab settings mean that the researcher can manipulate the IV without confounding the cause and effect, e.g. changing the verb in the leading question. This therefore increases the internal validity as the researcher is studying what they intended to. However, in a lab setting there are undetectable biases such as demand characteristics as participants want to please the researcher and so try harder. When they don’t know the answer to a question they guess meaning there is an increased use of misleading information. This means we may be more accurate in real life EWT.

Question 32

Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (EWT)
EVALUATION - CRITIQUE
A03

Answer 32

In addition, the use of a lab study means that the experiment is conducted in an artificial environment. In real life witnesses’ experiences are subject to stress and anxiety. This can influence their recall of events. So we have to be cautious when generalising the results of the studies to real life EWT.

Question 33

Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (EWT)
EVALUATION - APPLICATIONS
A03

Answer 33

This research has influenced police procedures. Police aim not to lead witnesses by keeping questions open, e.g. ‘describe the person/event’. They also try to limit post-event discussion by keeping witnesses separate or ask them not to discuss the events. This helps to increase the accuracy of EWT and prevent any miscarriages of justice.

Question 34

Factors affecting EWT - Anxiety

A01

Answer 34

Anxiety can have both a positive and a negative effect on the accuracy of EWT.

Anxiety can have a negative on recall. Anxiety creates physiological arousal (a state of panic) in the body which prevents us paying attention to important cues, so recall is worse.

Evidence of the negative effect on recall can be seen in the research by Johnson and Scott (1976). In their study, participants were waiting outside the lab and ‘over-heard’ what they thought was a genuine exchange. In the ‘low anxiety condition’ of the study a man then walked into the waiting area, carrying a pen and with grease in his hands. In the ‘high anxiety condition’ a man then walked into the waiting area , holding s knife covered in blood. They found that participants that experienced the ‘low anxiety condition’ were able to identify the man leaving the room 49% of the time. This is likely due to the fact that little anxiety was caused and so participants were able to take in more information and so accuracy of recall was good. Participants that experienced the ‘high anxiety condition’ were only able to identify the man leaving the room 33% of the time. This is due to the fact that the greater anxiety level meant they were unable to take in much of the information as their focus was narrowed towards the weapon, because it was the source of their anxiety. This is known as tunnel vision.

Anxiety can also have a positive effect on recall. Arousal triggers the fight or flight response, we pay more attention to the situation we are in as a result. This results in an increase of detailed information entering our LTM.

Evidence for this comes from a study by Yuillo and Cutshall (1986). In this study, they took 13 witnesses of a real life shooting at a gun shop in Canada in which the owner had shot the thief dead. The witnesses agreed to take part in interviews held 4-5 months after the incident and their responses were compared to those made at the time of the incident in police records. They also rated how stressed they were at the time of the shooting. They found that high levels of stress resulted in an 88% accuracy of recall whereas low levels of stress resulted in only a 75% accuracy of recall.

The Yarkes-Dodson law can explain the different responses to anxiety with an inverted ‘u’ graph. The graph states that performences will increase up to a point (the optimal level of anxiety that means accuracy of recall is at its maximum), where it then decreases drastically due to an excess of anxiety (panic|).

Question 35

Factors affecting EWT - Anxiety
EVALUATION - CRITIQUE
A03

Answer 35

In lab studies it is not possible to make participants very anxious because it is unethical (may subject people to psychological harm). This means we cannot be sure if we are recreating similar effects to real life events. This is an issue as it reduces the ecological validity of the research into the influence of anxiety on EWT.

Question 36

Factors affecting EWT - Anxiety
EVALUATION - CRITIQUE
A03

Answer 36

The use of real life events reduces the risk of causing psychological harm. However, there is little control over extraneous variables, resulting in confounding variables such as post-event discussion. Real life studies are also retrospective, i.e.. asking witnesses to recall past events. This reduces the credibility of evidence from studies of real life events.

Question 37

Factors affecting EWT - Anxiety
EVALUATION - APPLICATIONS
A03

Answer 37

Research into the effect anxiety has on EWT has led to real life applications. The inverted ‘u’ explanation can be used in police procedures. Calming witnesses will help to achieve the optimum level of anxiety. This is a strength as it improves the accuracy of recall.

Question 38

Improving the accuracy of EWT - Cognitive interview

A01

Answer 38

Fisher (1992) argued that EWT could be improved if the police used better techniques when interviewing eyewitnesses. He recommended that such techniques be based on psychological insights into how memory works, and called these techniques collectively the cognitive interview (CI). This indicates its foundation in cognitive psychology. There are 4 main techniques that are used.

Firstly, witnesses are encouraged to include every single detail of the event, even though it may seem irrelevant or the witness doesn’t feel confident about it. Seemingly trivial details may prove important and can trigger other memories. This technique is known as report everything.

Secondly, witnesses should return to the scene of the crime ‘in their mind’ and imagine the environment, e.g. what the weather was like, this is related to the idea of context-dependant failure. This technique is known as reinstate the context.

Thirdly, events should be recalled in a different chronological order to the original sequence. E.g. from the final point to the beginning. This is done to prevent reporting their expectations of how the event must have happened rather than the actual events. It also prevents dishonesty (it is harder to produce an untruthful account in reverse order). This technique is known as reverse the order.

Lastly, witnesses should recall the incident from other people’s perspectives. E.g. from the POV of a perpetrator or bystander. This is done to disrupt expectations of schema recall. A witnesses schema of going to a shop for example means they may produce their expectations of the event instead of the reality based on their premade assumptions of their schema. This technique is known as change the perspective.

The CI can be improved further with an enhanced version (ECI). It focuses on the social dynamics of interaction. The interviewer takes time to establish rapport with the witness and encourages them to answer with upmost accuracy. E.g. the interviewer knows when to establish eye contact and when to relinquish it. This reduces anxiety, limits distractions and allows questions to be asked openly.

Question 39

Improving the accuracy of EWT - Cognitive interview
EVALUATION - SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
A03

Answer 39

Supporting evidence fro the effectiveness of CIs comes from Kohnken’s meta-analysis study where he combined data from 50 studies. This is a strength because studies such as this one indicate that there are real practical benefits to the police of using the enhanced version of the CI. The research shows that it gives the police a greater chance of catching a charging criminals, which is beneficial to society as a whole.

Question 40

Improving the accuracy of EWT - Cognitive interview
EVALUATION - CRITIQUE
A03

Answer 40

One limitation of the CI is that it can increase the recall of inaccurate information. This is shown in Kohnken’s research where a 61% increase of incorrect information was found when the ECI was compared to the standard police interview. This is a problem because it makes the EWT unreliable. To overcome this problem it may help to use more than just the CI to convict a criminal.

Question 41

Improving the accuracy of EWT - Cognitive interview
EVALUATION - APPLICATION
A03

Answer 41

One strength of the CI is that it has real life applications in the legal system. EWT is often used to decide if the accused is guilty or innocent. It is therefore essential EWT is as accurate as possible to avoid miscarriages of justice.

Question 42

Describe the Report Everything feature of the CI

Answer 42

Witnesses are encouraged to include every single detail of the event, even though it may seem irrelevant or the witness doesn’t feel confident about it. Seemingly trivial details may prove important and can trigger other memories. This technique is known as report everything.

Question 43

Describe the Reinstate the Context feature of the CI

Answer 43

Witnesses should return to the scene of the crime ‘in their mind’ and imagine the environment, e.g. what the weather was like, this is related to the idea of context-dependant failure. This technique is known as reinstate the context.

Question 44

Describe the Reverse the Order feature of the CI

Answer 44

Events should be recalled in a different chronological order to the original sequence. E.g. from the final point to the beginning. This is done to prevent reporting their expectations of how the event must have happened rather than the actual events. It also prevents dishonesty (it is harder to produce an untruthful account in reverse order). This technique is known as reverse the order.

Question 45

Describe the Change Perspective feature of the CI

Answer 45

Witnesses should recall the incident from other people’s perspectives. E.g. from the POV of a perpetrator or bystander. This is done to disrupt expectations of schema recall. A witnesses schema of going to a shop for example means they may produce their expectations of the event instead of the reality based on their premade assumptions of their schema. This technique is known as change the perspective.

Question 46

Describe the Enhanced Cognitive Interview (ECI)

Answer 46

The CI can be improved further with an enhanced version (ECI). It focuses on the social dynamics of interaction. The interviewer takes time to establish rapport with the witness and encourages them to answer with upmost accuracy. E.g. the interviewer knows when to establish eye contact and when to relinquish it. This reduces anxiety, limits distractions and allows questions to be asked openly.