Memory Flashcards
Memory (definition)
The process by whichever take something we have observed and convert it into a form we can store, retrieve and use.
Mental representations of memory (3)
Sensory: retrieval of something experienced by senses (eg. visual image of a dog or sound of a gunshot)
Verbal: information stored in words (eg. Concept of freedom)
Motoric: memories of motor actions (eg. Swinging a racket)
Information processing model of memory
Stimulus
Sensory registers
>
Short term memory
> (rehearsal)
Long term memory ^ (retrieval from here back to STM)
information can be lost at any stage
Sensory Registers
Definition
Hold information about a perceived stimulus for a fraction of a second after stimulus disappears.
one sensory register for every sensory system
Types of storage in sensory registers (2)
Iconic Storage: momentary storage of visual information
Echoic Storage: momentary storage of auditory information
Short Term Memory
What goes in - what it holds - how it stays
Information from sensory registers that is ATTENDED TO moves into the STM.
Holds small amount of information (limited capacity of approx 7 items) for short period of time (approx 20 - 30 seconds)
If material is REHEARSED than it can be maintained in the STM for a longer period (eg. Chanting a phone number until it is dialled = maintenance rehearsal)
Long Term Memory
What is it - how to use it - duration/capacity
Representations of facts, images, actions and skills that may persist over a lifetime (potentially limitless duration)
Theoretically limitless in capacity
Extracting information from LTM is called RETRIEVAL
Working Memory (What it does - why it's used)
The temporary storage and processing of information.
Easily accessed but is limited in capacity
Used to:
Solve problems
Respond to environmental demands
Achieve goals
Working Memory Systems
3 types
Central Executive: controls the flow and processing of information (limited capacity)
Visual memory store (visuospatial sketchpad): a temporary image (20 - 30 seconds) that stores information about the location and nature of objects
Verbal memory store (phonological loop): involves storage of verbal items (equates to STM) - limited capacity
Neuropsychology of Working Memory
Working memory is thought to be directed by the PREFRONTAL CORTEX
Verbal and visual working memory activate different cortical regions of the brain. This demonstrates the independence of different components of working memory
Working Memory & LTM Deficits (2)
LTM DEFICIT: person shows normal working memory but cannot transfer information to LTM
WORKING MEMORY DEFICIT: person had a memory span of 2 digits but normal LTM
Chunking (what it is & purpose)
The use of knowledge from the LTM to increase the capacity of working memory
*breaking up information into small memorable pieces or relating new information to information already in LTM to help memorise (my definition from figures in book)
Overview of long term memory
- flow chart *
(Factors that affect successful long term memory storage - two sides)
ONE SIDE:
Type of knowledge stored =
>
- Procedural memory (skills/habits)
Or
- declarative memory
^^ - generic/semantic (general knowledge)
- episodic (specific events)
OTHER SIDE:
Way knowledge is expressed =
>
- Implicit memory (memory expressed in behaviour)
Or
- Explicit Memory
^^^ - Recall
- Recognition
Varieties of long term memory: (2)
Declarative memory: memory for facts and events which can be stated or declared.
Procedural memory: memory for the ‘how to’ of skills or procedures
Types of Declarative Memories (2)
Declarative memories are a type of long term memory
Semantic: General world knowledge or facts
Episodic: memories of specific events which is autobiographical in nature
Retrieving and using knowledge from memory:
2 ways - 2 types of memory
Explicit memory - memory that is expressed through conscious recollection (eg. Remembering telephone numbers)
Implicit memory - memoir that is expressed in behaviour but does not require conscious recollection (eg. Driving a car)
Explicit Memory and its two types of retrieval
Involves the CONSCIOUS retrieval of information
Recall: the spontaneous conscious recollection of information from LTM. (Eg. Responding to open ended question in exam situation)
Recognition: the identification of something previously seen or learned. (Eg. Responding to multiple choice question in exam situation)
Encoding in Long Term Memory
(what and why)
(+ 2 types of processing)
Storage of information in LTM requires that it be cast into a representational form (encoded)
Shadow processing: focus on the physical characteristics of the stimulus.
Deep processing: focus on the meaning of the stimulus.
Region of brain crucial to memory (affects people with Alzheimer’s)
Hippocampus
Encoding Specificity Principle
The ease of retrieval of a memory depends on a match between the way information was ENCODED and how it is later retrieved.
- there is poor recall if shallow learning is examined using a deep processing technique
(eg. A student who reads multiple choice items in a text bloom and then takes an essay exam will not do well.)
Context and Revival
- 2 Types of memory that affect retrieval and why
Context dependant memory: information is easier to recall when it is encoded and retrieved in the same context.
Mood (state) congruent memory: information is easier to recall when it is encoded and retrieve in the same emotional state.
** the same context or emotional state provides RETRIEVAL CUES which facilitate recollection **
Spacing Effect
Superiority of memory for information rehearsed over longer intervals (eg. repeat study over time)
Mnemonic Devices
+ 2 methods
Add additional cues for retrieval to enhance memory.
Method of loci - uses visual imagery as a memory aid.
SQ4R method - method specifically designed to help students remember information from textbooks
= surgery, question, read, recite, review and write
Networks of Association
LTM is organised in clusters of information that are related in meaning
The network is comprised of interconnected nodes
A node may contain thoughts, images, smells, emotions or any other information
(Mnemonic devices allow one to add concepts to existing networks)
Spreading Activation
- having two clusters of different information for the same thing
(My definition)
Example (from book)
“Tide”
One cluster = moon, waves, ocean
Other cluster = laundry detergent = “All”, “Fab” and “Cheer”
Hierarchical Storage
Nodes in LTM may be organised such that broad categories contain narrower categories
- hierarchical storage can lead to retrieval errors
Schemas
- how they affect the way people remember
- missing definition *
- By influencing the way information is encoded
2. By shaping the way information is reconstructed
Seven Sins of Memory
T, A, M, S, B, P, F
Transience: memories fade with time
Absent mindedness: need to pay attention to remember
Mis attribution: source amnesia
Suggestibility: thinking we remember
Bias: distortions in recall
Persistence: recurring memories
Forgetting: inability to remember
Forgetting
definition
Inability to recall previously learned information
*EBBINGHAUS documented rate of forgetting information = found that retainment of information decreases over time
Accuracy of Long Term Memory
Factors affecting errors = 2 + eyewitness testimony error
Memory is subject to errors and biases
- memory can be primed
- memory can be altered by emotional factors
Eyewitness testimony: recall of events can be manipulated by leading questions
(eg. Did you see the/a broken tail light?)
Theories of Forgetting (3)
Decay theory: memory is like a fading neural trace that is weakened with disuse
Inference theory: conflict between new and old memories
- Proactive: old interferes with new
- Retroactive: new interferes with old
Motivated forgetting: implies that forgetting can avoid painful memories
False Memories
Almost impossible to distinguish between false and recovered memories
- important to be aware that a distressing memory is still distressing to a person whether it is false or recovered
Process of (making and using) memory
Encoding > storage > retrieval
