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Psychology GRE > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the three stages of memory?

A

Sensory, short-term, and long-term.

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2
Q

What is sensory memory?

A

It lasts only for seconds and forms the connection between perception and memory.

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3
Q

What is iconic memory?

A

Sensory memory for vision studied by George Sperling. Found that people could see more than they could remember. Subjects were shown random strings of letters for a fraction of a second and were instructed to write down a string. They forgot the other strings in the time it took to write the first ones down. This partial report shows sensory memory exists.

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4
Q

What is an icon?

A

Termer by Neisser, it is the brief visual memory. It lasts for about one second. When subjects are exposed to a bright flash of light or a new pattern before the icon fades, the first image will be erased. This is backward masking.

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5
Q

What is echoic memory?

A

Sensory memory for auditory sensations.

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6
Q

What is short-term memory?

A

Temporary, it lasts for seconds or minutes.

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7
Q

What is working memory?

A

Temporary memory that is needed to perform the task that someone is working on at the moment.

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8
Q

What did George Miller find out?

A

The magic number 7 (plus or minus 2).

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9
Q

What is chunking?

A

Grouping items, it could increase the capacity of STM.

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10
Q

What is rehearsal?

A

Repeating or practicing and it is the key to keeping items in STM and transferring in LTM.

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11
Q

What is primary (maintenance) rehearsal?

A

Repeating material in order to hold it in STM.

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12
Q

What is secondary (elaborative) rehearsal?

A

Organizing and understanding material in order to transfer it to LTM.

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13
Q

What is interference?

A

How other information or distraction cause one to forget items in STM.

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14
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

Disrupting information before the new items were presented, such as a list of similar words.

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15
Q

What is proactive inhibition?

A

Cannot recall because of proactive interference.

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16
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

Disrupting information that was learned after new items were presented.

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17
Q

What is retroactive inhibition?

A

Problem for recall from retroactive interference.

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18
Q

What is long-term memory?

A

It is capable of permanent retention and most items are learned semantically, for meaning.

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19
Q

What is long-term memory retention measured by?

A

Recognition
Recall
Savings

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20
Q

What is recognition?

A

Requires subjects to recognize things in the past. Multiple choice tests are an example.

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21
Q

What is recall?

A

Requires that subjects generate information on their own. Cued recall begins the task, such as fill-in-the-blank tests. Free recall is remembering with no cue.

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22
Q

What are savings?

A

Measure how much information about a subject remains in LTM by assessing how long it takes to learn something the second time as opposed to the first time.

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23
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A

Material is more likely to be remembered if it is retrieved in the same context in which it was stored.

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24
Q

Is LTM subject to primary and recency effects?

A

No.

25
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

Details, events, and discrete knowledge.

26
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

General knowledge of the world.

27
Q

What is procedurak memory?

A

Knowing “how to” do something.

28
Q

What is declarative memory?

A

Knowing a fact.

29
Q

What is explicit memory?

A

Knowing something and being consciously aware of knowing it, such as knowing a fact.

30
Q

What is implicit memory?

A

Knowing something without being aware of knowing it.

31
Q

Who is Hermann Ebbinghaus?

A

First person to study memory systematically. He presented subjects with lists of nonsense syllables to study STM. He proposed a forgetting curve.

32
Q

What is the forgetting curve?

A

A curve that depicts a sharp drop in savings immediately after learning and then levels off, with a slight trend downward.

33
Q

What did Frederick Bartlett find?

A

Memory is reconstructive is rather than rote. People are more likely to remember ideas or semantics of a story rather than the details or grammar of a story.

34
Q

What is the dual code hypothesis?

A

Allen Paivio; states that items will be better remembered if they are encoded both visually and semantically.

35
Q

What is depth of processing?

A

Craik and Lockhard; Different levels of processing exist from the most superficial phonological level to the deep semantic level. The deeper an item is processed, the easier it is to learn and recall.

36
Q

What do behaviorists explain memory through?

A

Paired-associate learning; one item is learned with, and then cues recall of, another.

37
Q

What did Elizabeth Loftus find?

A

That memory of traumatic events is altered by the event itself and by the way that questions about the events are phrased. “How fast were the cars going when they crashed?” with elicit higher speed estimates than “What was the rate of the cars upon impact?”

38
Q

What did Karl Lashley find?

A

That memories are stored diffusely in the brain.

39
Q

What did Donald Hebb find?

A

Memories involve changes of synapses and neural pathways, making a “memory tree.”

40
Q

Who was E. R. Kandel?

A

Studied the sea slug Aplysia and found that memory involves changes of synapses and neural pathways.

41
Q

Who is Brenda Milner?

A

Wrote about patient “HM” who was given a lesion to the hippocampus. While he remembered things from before the surgery, and his STM was intact, he could not store long-term memories.

42
Q

What is serial learning?

A

A list, such as the presidents of the United States, is learned and recalled in order (serial recall). Feedback on the correct responses in the correct order is given after the entire list is recalled.

43
Q

What are primacy and recency effects?

A

How the first and last few things learned are easiest to remember, whereas the middle are often forgotten. The serial-position curve shows this.

44
Q

What is serial-anticipation learning?

A

Similar to serial learning, however the subject is asked to recall the entire list at once. Example, the person will be shown George Washington and expected to say John Adams. Then will be shown John Adams and expected to say Thomas Jefferson.

45
Q

What is paired-associate learning?

A

Use this learning when we study foreign languages, Pair “car” with coche.

46
Q

What are the seven factors that make an item easier to learn and retrieve?

A
  1. Acoustic dissimilarity
  2. Semantic dissimilarity
  3. Brevity (both in the length of the term and in the length of the lists of terms)
  4. Familiarity
  5. Concreteness
  6. Meaning
  7. Importance to the subject
47
Q

What is the decay theory?

A

Also known as trace theory, says memories fade over time. Has been called too simplistic.

48
Q

What is interference theory?

A

Competing information blocks retrieval.

49
Q

What are mnemonics?

A

Memory cues that help learning and recall.

50
Q

What is the generation-recognition model?

A

Anything one might recall should easily be recognize. Multiple-choice tests.

51
Q

What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenonomenon?

A

Being on the verge of retrieval but not successfully doing so.

52
Q

What is state-dependent memory?

A

Retrieval is more successful if it occurs in the same emotional state or physical state in which encoding occured.

53
Q

What is clustering?

A

The brain’s tendency to group together similar items in memory whether they are learned together or not, More often, they are grouped into conceptual or semantic hierarchies.

54
Q

In recall involving order of items on a list, what can subjects more quickly state: Orders far apart or orders close together?

A

Far apart

55
Q

What is incidental learning?

A

Measured through presenting subjects with items they are not supposed to try to memorize and then testing for learning.

56
Q

What is eidetic imagery?

A

Photographic memory. This is more common in children and rural cultures.

57
Q

What are flashbulb memories?

A

Memories burned in your brain, such as where one was when the World Trade Center collapsed.

58
Q

What is a tachiscope?

A

An instrument often used in cognitive or memory experiments. It presents visual mater (words or images) to subjects for a fraction of a second.

59
Q

What is the Zeigarnik effect?

A

The tendency to recall uncompleted tasks better than completed tasks.

Psychology GRE (5 decks)

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