Memory Flashcards
1
Q
What is short term memory?
A
The limited capacity memory store.
Coding is mainly acoustic.
Capacity is 7+-2
Duration is about 18 seconds.
2
Q
what is long term memory?
A
The permenant memory store.
Coding is mainly semantic.
Capacity is unlimited.
Duration can be upto a lifetime.
3
Q
what is coding?
A
The way something is stored in various memory stores.
4
Q
what is duration?
A
How long information stays in a memory store.
5
Q
What is capacity?
A
How much information can be stored in a memory store at one time.
6
Q
Who researched coding in memory?
A
Baddeley - completed a long term and short term memory study
7
Q
what did Baddeley study?
A
Coding in memory
8
Q
what was the procedure of Baddeley’s study?
A
He gave different lists of words to groups of ppts.
:
- Group 1 - acoustically similar
- Group 2 - acoustically dissimilar
- Group 3 - semantically similar
- Group 4 - semantically dissimilar
Ppts then had to learn these words and either recall them immediately (STM) or recall the after 20 minutes (LTM)
9
Q
what was the findings of Baddeley’s study?
A
Those who recalled immediately (STM) did worse on acoustically similar words - meaning STM is coded acoustically.
Those who recalled after 20 minutes, did worse on semantically similar words - LTM is coded semantically.
10
Q
what did Baddeley say about coding?
A
STM is coded acoustically
LTM is coded semantically
11
Q
what was group 1 in Baddeley’s study?
A
Acoustically similar
12
Q
what was group 2 in Baddeley’s study?
A
Acoustically dissimilar
13
Q
what was group 3 in Baddeley’s study?
A
Semantically similar
14
Q
what was group 4 in Baddeley’s study?
A
Semantically dissimilar
15
Q
what is a strength of Baddeley’s study?
A
It showed a clear difference in the two memory stores.
Proved that LTM and STM are seperate stores
16
Q
what is a weakness of Baddeley’s study?
A
It used an artificial stimuli (lists of words).
The words had no meaning to the ppts, so it doesnt show much about everyday life
Suggests that the findings have limited application
17
Q
who studied capacity of Short term memory?
A
Jacobs (digit span technique)
Miller (7+-2)
Cowan (4 chunks - against miller)
Simon (shorter memory for large chunks)
18
Q
what did Jacobs study?
A
STM capacity
19
Q
what was the procedure of Jacobs study?
A
Used digit span technique.
Gave ppts numbers of words and got them to repeat it.
He added one more number until they made a mistake.
He found they could generally remeber 9.3 digits, but only 7.3 letters
20
Q
what is teh digit span technique and who used it?
A
Jacobs used it.
Giving ppts a radom number of certain amount of digits, asking them to repeat it, and giving them another random number with one more digit, until they made a mistake
21
Q
what did Jacobs find?
A
Ppts generally rembered 9.3 numbers but only 7.3 letters.
This could be because theres only 1-9 possible numbers, but 26 possible letters
22
Q
what did Miller study?
A
STM capacity
23
Q
what did Miller find?
A
We can remember five words as easily as we can remeber five letters.
Our brain chunks information together in meaningful groups to remeber more easily.
‘Magic number’ is 7+-2
24
Q
what did Miller propose?
A
Magic number is 7+-2
25
who disagreed with Miller?
Cowan
26
what did Cowan study?
STM capacity
Against Miller
27
what did Cowan do?
Investiagetd the amount of info that can be remembered and found that for most it is 4 chunks.
However, a chunk can be quite large, so more info can be recalled if its chunked
28
what did Cowan find?
For most people, chunks of 4, not 7+-2
29
what did Simon study?
STM capacity
30
what did Simon suggest?
That people had a shorter memory for larger chunks, suggesting size of the chunk matters
31
What is a strength of Jacobs digit span technique study?
It has been replicated, and they found similar results
32
what is a limitation of Millers study?
Cowan found it to be 4 chunks
33
who completed research onto STM duration?
Peterson and Peterson
34
what did Peterson and Peterson study?
STM duration
35
what was the procedure of Peterson and Peterson's study?
- Gave 24 students a nonsense trigram (THX) that they had to remeber.
- To prevent rehearsal, they were also given a 3 digit number to count down from (e.g. from 512)
- found that 90% of info was remebered after 3 secs
- 20% after 9 secs
- 2% after 18 secs
36
what was the findings of Peterson and Peterson's study?
After 3 seconds, 90% was remebered.
After 9 seconds, 20% was remebered.
After 18 seconds, 2% was remembered.
Suggests that duration of STM is less than 18 seconds as long as there is no rehearsal
37
in Peterson and Peterson's study, how much was recalled after 3 seconds?
90%
38
in Peterson and Peterson's study, how much was recalled after 9 seconds?
20%
39
in Peterson and Peterson's study, how much was recalled after 18 seconds?
2%
40
what did Peterson and Peterson's study suggest?
that duration of STM is less than 18 seconds, as long as there is no rehearsal
41
what is a weakness of Peterson and Peterson's study?
It used an artificial stimulus.
It doesnt reflect everyday life (nonsense syllables is unlikely in real life)
This study lacks external validity
42
who studied duration of LTM?
Bahrick et al
43
what did Bahrick et al study?
duration of ltm
44
what was the procedure of bahrick et al's study?
- People of different ages had to name faces from thier highschool yearbook
- 48 years after, they were 70% accurate
- if information is meaningful it can be stored in LTM for a long time
45
what did Bahrick et al find?
48 years after, they were 70% accurate.
15 years after graduating, they were 90% accurate.
LTM duration is high
46
what is a strength of Bahrick et al study?
It uses real-life memories, meaning it has high ecological validity
47
what is a weakness of Bahrick et al study?
It is difficult to control extraneous varibles such as if they had seen their classmates over the years
48
who proposed the multi-store model?
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968,1971)
49
what is the multi-store model?
An early explanation of how our memory works. It suggests our memory is split into 3 seperate stores.
It is a cognitive model of memory
50
what are the 3 stores in the multi-store model?
Sensory register
Long term memory
Short term memory
51
what is the sensory register?
Where information from senses first enters brain to be processed.
Coding is modality free (depends on the sense)
Duration is very brief (less than half a second)
Capacity is very high.
52
what is the store called for hearing in the sensory register?
Echoic store
53
what is the store for touch in the sensory register?
Haptic store
54
what is the store for taste in the sensory register?
Gustatory store
55
what is the store for vision in the sensory register?
Iconic store
56
what is the store for smell in the sensory register?
Olfactory store
57
how does information pass from the sensory register?
By paying attention to it
58
who researched the sensory register?
Sperling
59
what did Sperling research?
Sensory registerw
60
what did Sperling say about the sensory register?
The visual sensory register (iconic) can hold a lot of information but it decays quickly (within two seconds)
61
what is maintenance rehearsal?
Repeating information over and over in our short term memory
62
how does information pass from short term to long term and vice versa
short to long term is elaborative rehearsal
Long to short term is retrieval
63
what are the strengths of the multi-store model?
- Lots of studies supporting capacity, duration and coding to show different stores of LTM and STM (Baddeley)
- brain scans have found prefrontal cortex active during STM but not LTM
- HM supports seperatre stores of LTM and STM
64
what does the case of HM support?
LTM and STM as different stores
65
what is the case of HM?
- HM suffered from epilsepy
- He had surgery to remove his epliepctic brain part (his hippocampus)
- When the woke, his STM was still working, however he could only remeber LTM from before surgery
- He couldnt create any new long term memories
- Show STM and LTM must be in different areas of brain
66
what are the weaknesses of the multi-store model?
- The model is too simplistic - it says that STM is only one store
- lots of rehearsal isnt needed for it to transfer into LTM (e.g. fears)
67
who propsed different types of long term memory?
Tulving
He said that LTM in multi store model is too simplistic
68
what LTM types did Tulving suggest?
Episodic
Semantic
Procedural
69
what is episodic memory?
- Memory of events in your life
- they are time-stamped
- the memory will have different elements (e.g. location, people, activities)
- you have to make conscious effort to recall
70
why is episodic memory complex?
They are time stamped
The memory contains differet elements (e..g people, objects, location)
You have to make conscious effort to recall
71
what is procedural memory?
- Memory of skills or how to do things
- Implicit - unconsciously recalled
- procedural memory is made through practise
72
what is semantic memory?
- general knowledge of the world
- explicit memory type
- begin as episodic memories, but we gradually forget how we learnt it
73
what is implicit memories?
Unconsciously recalled
Procedural
74
what is explicit memories?
Consciously recalled
Episodic and semantic
75
what is the evaluation of the different LTM types?
- evidence from brain scans
- HM - Corkin
- Clive Wearing
76
who studies HM?
Corkin
77
How does HM support types of LTM?
- he couldnt remeber any new episodes of his life
- Corkin made his practise drawing by only looking in a miror
- he got better at this suggesting his procedural memory wasn't affected
78
what is the case of Clive Wearing?
- He had a severe form of amnsesia caused b a viral infection that damaged his hippocampus
- he can still play the piano (procedural), but he cant form any new memories (episodic)
79
what is the issue with using HM and Clive Wearing?
They used brain damage meaning it cant be fully generalised to 'normal' brains
80
who propsed the working memory model?
Baddeley and Hitch
81
what did Baddeley and Hitch propose?
The working memory model
82
what is the working memory model?
A representation of STM, suggesting STM is a dynamic process
83
what are the parts of teh working memory model?
Central executive
Phonological loop
Visuo-spatial sketchpad
Episodic buffer
84
what is the central executive?
A 'supervisory role' which monitors incoming data, focuses and divides our attention and allocates 'slave systems' to tasks.
It has a very limited processing capacity and does not store information
85
what is the phonological loop?
Slave system in WMM
- Handles auditory information
86
what does the phonological loop do?
Handles auditory information
Capacity is about the info that can be spoken in two seconds
87
what is the capacity of the phonological loop?
About the information that can be spoken in two seconds
88
what are the two parts of the phonological loop?
Primary acoustic store (inner ear)
Articulatory process (Inner voice)
89
what does the inner ear do (phonological loop)?
stores words that have been recently heard/
90
what does the inner voice do (phonological loop)?
Keeps information in the phonological loop through sub-vocal repetition of information and is linked to speech production
91
what does the visuo-spatial sketchpad do?
It handles visual information and the spatial information
i.e. our ability to locate and navigate our surroundings
92
what are the two parts of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?
Visual cache
Inner scribe
93
what does the visual cache do?
handles visual information like shape and colour
94
what does the inner scribe do?
Handles spatial relationships and transfers information back to the central executive
95
why was the episodic buffer added later?
It was added to the WMM by Baddeley as the WMM lacked a 'general store'
96
what does the episodic buffer do?
A temporary combined store of information from the other parts of the model
97
what are the researcher supporting the working memory model?
- Shallice and Warrington (KF)
- Trojani and Grossi (SC)
- Hitch and Baddeley (Dual task performance)
- Baddeley
- Baddeley et al (word length effect)
98
who studied KF?
Shallice Warrington
99
how does the case of KF (shallice and Warrington) support the working memory model?
- Although his memory for verbal things was bad, his visual information wasn't affected
- WMM can explain that there was damage to the articulatory loop with the sketchpad remaining intact
100
who provided the case of SC?
Trojani and Grossi
101
how does the case of SC (Trojani and Grossi) support the working memory model?
- SC had brain damage affecting his phonological loop, but not his visuo-spatial sketchpad, suggesting they are seperate systems
102
how does Hitch and Baddeley (dual-task performance) support the working memory model?
- in a lab experiment, Hitch and Baddleey highlighted that performance is slower when ppts are given tasks that use the same WMM components.
103
how does Baddeley support the working memory model?
- Baddeley found that ppts found it difficult to generate lists of random numbers whilst switching from pressing numbers and letters on a keyboard
- supports idea that central executive has limited capacity and can only handle one type of info at a time
104
how does Baddeley et al (word length effect) support the working memory?
- Baddeley et al showed that phonological loop can hold what you can say in 2 seconds
- this means you can remember more short words than long words
105
how does Bunge et al support the central executive?
- Bunge et al used fMRI scans to show that the certain areas of the brain were more active when given a dual-task activity compared to a single task
- shows increased attention needed by central executive
106
whta did Klauer and Zhao suggest about the working memory model?
That there is more interference between two visual tasks than between a visual and spatial task
- Supports there being a seperate visual cache and inner scribe
107
what are the strengths of the working memory model?
- WMM expands on the MSM by offering a better version of STM
- it shows differences between the different stores and processes in STM and therefore can explain things the MSM cant
108
what are the weaknesses of the working memory model?
- Central Executive is vaguely defined and doesnt have lots of research into it
- some researchers think the central executive is only used to decide what to pay attention to
- using information from brain damaged patients cant be generalised to normal patients
109
what are the explanations for forgetting?
Interference
Retrieval failure
110
what is the interference theory?
Two memories can get mixed up during encoding and become more difficult to recall
111
what are the two types of interference?
Proactive interference
Retroactive interference
112
what is proactive interference?
when old memories interfer with the ability to recall new information.
For example, you are used to your makeup being in one drawer so if you change the drawers, you will go to the old drawer not the new drawer.
113
what is retroactive interference?
When new information interferes with the ability to recall old information.
For example, you learn the piano after two years of playing the guitar, and now you struggle to play the guitar.
114
who researched interference?
McGeoch and McDonald (similarity)
Kepel and Underwood (proactive interference - trigrams)
Muller and Pilzecker (retroactive interference)
Danaher et al (advertising)
Kane and Engle
115
what did McGeoch and McDonald study?
Similarity hvaing an impact on interference
116
what was the procedure of McGeoch and McDonald's similarity study?
- Ppts learnt lists of words until they could recall them perfectly
- Some ppts then spent 10 minutes resting whilst others learnt new similar words
- the more similar the words, the worse the recall of original list
117
what was the findings of McGeoch and McDonald's similarity study?
- the more similar the words, the worse the recall of the original list
- ppts who had spent 10 minutes resting, had the highest recall
- if words were similar, recall was 12%
- if words were random, recall was 26%
- if they were numbers, recall was 37%
118
who had the highest recall in McGeoch and McDonald's similarity study?
Those who had the 10 minutes resting before learning the new words
119
what was the recall in McGeoch and McDonalds Similarity study when the words were similar?
12%
120
what was the recall in McGeoch and McDonalds similarity study when the words were random?
26%
121
what was the recall in McGeoch and McDonalds similarity sudy when the lists were numbers?
36%
122
what did Muller and Pilzecker study?
Retroactive interference
123
what was the procedure of Muller and Pilzecker's retroactive interference study?
- Group A had to learn lists of nonsense words#
- they then had to describe photos (interfering activity)
- Control group didnt describe photos
124
what was the findings for Muller and Pilzecker's study for retroactive interference?
- Group A (describe photos) had poor recall
- Control group (no photos) had good recall
125
which group had the best recall in Muller and Pilzecker's study?
The control group who didnt complete an interfering activity
126
what did Danaher et al suggest??
Ppts confused adverts when they were too similar
- suggest it would be better to run one advert several times a day
127
what did Kane and Engle suggest?
Those with greater working memory capacity were less affected by interference
128
what are the limitations of the interference studies?
- they were done in labs, meaning they lack ecological validity and dont represent real world
- there must be other reasons for interference
129
what is retreival failure?
When information that was previously learnt cant be recalled.
Can be due to absence of cues
130
who presented the encoding specificty principle?
Tulving
131
what did Tulving's encoding specficity principle suggest?
The cue must be present at the time of encoding and the same cue must be present during retrieval
132
what did Tulving and Pearlstone study?
Retrieval failure
133
who studied retrieval failure?
Tulving and Pearlstone (words and categories)
134
what was the procedure of Tulving and Pearlstone's retrieval failure study?
- ppts had to remember words along with categories
- the first group had free recall and just said how many words they remembered
- the second group had cues to help tehm
135
what was the findings of Tulving and Pearlstones study?
- 1st group (no cues) had poor recall
- 2nd group had good recall due to help of cues
136
what are the two types of cues?
Context dependent
State dependent
137
who studied context dependent forgetting?
Godden and Baddeley
Grant et al
138
what did Godden and Baddeley study
context dependent forgetting
139
what was the procedure of Godden and Baddeley?
-ppts were all deep sea divers and had to learn same lists
- group 1 - learnt/recall underwater
- group 2 - learnt underwater, recall on shore
- group 3 - learnt on shore, recall underwater
- group 4 - learnt/recall on shore
- Group 1 and 4 had best recall
140
what was the findings of Godden and Baddeley's study?
Group 1 and 4 had best recall due to same context.
Recall was 40% lower in non-similar context
141
what did Grant et al study?
Context dependent forgetting
142
what was the procedure of Grant et al's study?
- ppts read an article, they were allowed to highlight and underline if they wanted to
- ppts wore headphones for either no noise or loud cafeteria noise (control measure)
- There was a 2 minute break before the test
- the test had short answer qs, then moved to multiple choice
- they were tested in silent or noisy conditions
143
what were the findings of grant et al study?
- silent study, silent recall had 81% recall
- noisy study, noisy recall had 79% recall
- noisy study, silent recall had 70% recall
- silent study, noisy recall had 68% recall
144
what was the recall of grant et al's silent study and silent recall?
81% recall
145
what was the recall of grant et al's noisy study, noisy recall?
79%
146
who completed studies on state dependent forgetting?
Carter and Cassady
Goodwin et al
147
what did Carter and Cassady study?
State dependent forgetting
148
what was teh procedure of Carter and Cassady's study?
- gave ppts antihistamine which made ppts feel drowsy
- they had to learn words either on drug or not on drug
- group 1 - learn drugs, recall drugs
- group 2 - learn drugs, recall no drugs
- group 3 - learn no drugs, recall drugs
- group 4 - learn no drugs, recall no drugs
- ppts perfomred worse when in different states
149
what was the findings in carter and cassady's study?
Ppts performed worse when in different states, i.e. group 2 ad group 3
150
what did goodwin et al study?
state dependent forgetting
151
what ws the procedure of goodwin et al's study?
Group 1 - sober learning, sober recall
Group 2 - sober learning, drunk recall
Group 3 - drunk learning, drunk recall
Group 4 - drunk learning, sober recall
152
what was the findings of goodwin et al's study?
Group 1 and 3 had the best recall due to both being in the same state when learning and recalling (i.e. drunk or sober)
153
what are the factors affecting the accuracy of eye-witness testimony?
Anxiety
Misleading information
Post event discussion
154
what are leading questions?
Questions that a formed in a way to prompt a certain answer
155
who studied misleading information affecting eye-witness testimony?
Loftus and Palmer study 1 and study 2
156
what did Loftus and Palmer study?
Misleading information affecting eye-witness testimony
157
what was the procedure of oftus and Palmer's first study?
- 45 students were shown 7 films of traffic accidents
- the students were given a questionnaire with one crucial question about how fast the cars were going.
- each student had a different verb
158
what were the questions in Loftus and Palmer's first study?
- How fast were the cars going when they 'hit' each other?
- How fast were teh cars going when they 'bumped' each other
- How fast were the cars going when they 'collided' each other?
- How fast were the cars going when they 'contacted' each other?
- How fast were the cars going when they 'smashed' each other?
159
what were teh results of Loftus and Palmer's study?
- 'hit' - 34mph
'bumped' 38.1mph
'collided' 39.3mph
'contacted' 31.8mph
'smashed' 40.8mph
160
what was the conclusion of Loftus and Palmer's first study?
As the verb 'smashed' indicates an increased speed, this group estimates the speed to be higher.
This shows someone's perception can be easily changed
161
how many conditions wer in Loftus and Palmer's first study?
5
Hit
Bumped
Collided
Contacted
Smashed
162
what do leading questions contain?
Misleading information or wording
163
what were the ppts asked in Loftus and Palmer's second study when they came back a week later?
Did you see any broken glass?
164
what was group 1 asked in Loftus and Palmer's second study?
How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
165
what was group 2 asked in Loftus and Palmer's second study?
How fast were the cars going whe they smashed each other
166
what was group 3 asked in Loftus and Palmer's second study?
Nothing about speed of cars
167
what were the results of Loftus and Palmer's second study?
Those who had 'smashed' 16 said yes glas,, 34 said no glass
- 'hit' - 7 said yes, 43 said no glass
- werent asked about speed - 6 said yes glass, 44 said no glass
168
what was the results for group 1 in Loftus and Palmers second study?
16 said yes
34 said no there wasn't glass
169
what was the results for group 2 in Loftus and Palmers second study?
7 said yes there was glass
43 siad no there wasnt glass
170
what was the results of group 3 in Loftus and Palmers second study?
6 said yes glass
44 said no there wasnt glass
171
what is the conformity effect?
There can also be issues with misleading information from external forces to those interviewing youw
172
who proposed the conformity effect?
Gabbert et al
173
what did Gabbert et al propose?
The conformity effect
174
what did Gabbert et al suggest?
Continual and repeated interviewing can also cause memories to be distorted
175
strengths of Loftus and Palmers studies?
- considerable studies that support the idea of misleading information
- investigators into eye witness testimonies can be used by the CJS which relies heavily on it
176
who are the studies against Loftus and Palmer?
- Wells and Olson (largest factor for false accusations)
- Schafter et al (Elderly people are more likely)
Bekerian and Bowers (order of events)
177
what are limitations of Loftus and Palmers studies?
- ecological validity issues
- Loftus and Palmer asked questions in random orders
- Bekerian and Bowers (order of events)
- Shafter et al (elderly peopl)
178
what did Wells and Olson suggest against Loftus and Palmers studies?
In recent DNA exoneration cases, innacruate eye witness testimonies was the largest factor causing false accusations
179
what did Schafter et al suggest against Loftus and Palmers studeis?
Elderly people are much more likely to be influenced by misleading information (participant differences)
180
what did Bekerian and Bowers suggest against Loftus and Palmers studies?
Suggests participants are less susceptible to misleading information if questions are asked in the order of the events
181
what is an eye witness testimoney?
An account given by people of an event they have witnessed
182
what psychological factors affect the eye-witness testimony?
Anxiety/stress
Reconstructive memory.
Weapon focus.
Leading questions
183
how does an eye-witness testimony work?
- Witness encodes details of an event into long term memory. There will be details missed as event probably happened quickly
- Witness retains information for a period of time (forgetting/interference)
- Witness recalls the information (issues with cues present)
184
what is anxiety?
An unpleasant emotional state where we fear something bad will happen.
It is linked with psychological arousal e.g. fast heart rate, shallow breathing
185
who studied anxiety as a negative effect on eye-witness testimony?
Johnson and Scott
186
what did Johnson and Scott study?
Anxiety as a negative effect on eye-witness testimony
187
what was the procedure of Johnson and Scott's study?
- Participants sat in a waiting room and heard an argument in the next room.
- A man came out carrying either
- Group 1 - a greasy pen
- Group 2 - a bloody knife
- Participants then had to identify the man
188
what was the results of Johnson and Scott's study?
49% accuracy for Group 1
33% accuracy for Group 2
Shows how during high anxiety moments, people look at central details (weapon) instead of other details (face)
189
what is the weapon-focus effect?
In a violent crime, physical arousal might focus the witness on central details (weapon) instead of peripheral details (other details)
190
who presented the weapon-focus effect?
Johnson and Scott
191
what did Johnson and Scott present?
The weapon focus effect
192
what is the evolutionary approach?
Idea that adaptive behaviours, e.g. anxiety, help us to survive.
Anxiety might positively affect memory
193
who studied whether anxiety can positively affect memory?
- Christianson and Hubinette (in some cases, anxiety can help)
- Yuille and Cutshall
194
what did Christianson and Hubinette study?
Sometimes anxiety can help improve memory
195
what was the procedure of Christianson and Hubinette study?
- 58 real life witnesses of a bank robbery in Sweden.
- All had different levels of anxiety.
- The ppts were interviewed 4-15 months after the initial robbery.
196
what was the findings of Christianson and Hubinette's study?
- ALL participants had above 75% accuracy recall of details in the event
- Those who experienced the most anxiety gave the most accurate details.
197
what did Christianson and Hubinette's study conclude?
Suggest the weapon focus effect can't fully account for the effect of anxiety on memory, and in some cases it can help.
198
what did Pickel study?
The weapoin focus might not be caused by anxiety.
He suggested that the reduced accuracy of testimony when weapons were present could be due to surprise rather than anxiety.
199
what was the procedure of Pickel's study?
- Participants in a hairdressers witnessed someone walking out carrying;
Scissors (high threat, low surprise)
Handgun ( high threat, high surprise)
Wallet (Low threat, low surprise)
Raw chicken (low threat, high surprise)
- Accurate identification was low in the high surprise situations, instead of high threat.
200
what was the findings of Pickel's study?
Correct identification is less likely in high surprise situations, instead of high threat. This suggests the weapon focus effect is related to high surprise situations not high threat
201
what did Pickel's suggest?
The weapon focus effect is related to high surprise situations not high threat
202
what did Yuille and Cutshall study?
Anxiety having positive effects on eye witness testimonies, using witnesses of an shooting in a shop
203
what was the procedure of Yuille and Cutshall study?
- There were 21 witnesses of an actual shooting in a shop in Vancouver
- The witnesses were interviewed 4-5 months after the events.
- 13 of the witnesses took part in the study
- the interviews were compared to the original police interviews.
- the witnesses were rated for their accuracy of recall and the level of anxiety they felt at the time and whether they had emotional problems after
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what were the participants tested for in Yuille and Cutshall's study?
- their accuracy of recall
- level of anxiety they felt at the time
- whether they had emotional problems after
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what were the results of Yuille and Cutshall's study?
Ppts were very reliable and that time had little impact on their recall
- those who were very stressed had 88% recall
- those who weren't stressed had 75% recall
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who completed a meta-analysis for anxiety affecting eye-witness testimony?
Daffenbracher
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what did Daffenbracher find in his meta-analysis?
Daffenbracher found that in some of the studies, anxiety increased the accuracy
He said that the Yerkes-Dodson effect was present, meaning moderate anxiety could be beneficial
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what did Daffenbracher suggest?
The Yerkes-Dodson effect is present in some cases of eye-witness testimony, meaning moderate anxiety could be beneficial in improving accuracy
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what is the cognitive interview?
Questioning technique used by police to enhance the retrieval of a crime scene from witnesses and victims.
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what is the main component of the cognitive interview?
Mental reinstatment of context
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what are strengths of the cognitive interview?
- Increased quantity and accuracy of information
- Reduced interviewer bias (less leading questions etc)
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what are the weaknesses of the cognitive interview?
- It is very time consuming
- Its possible for false memories
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what are the factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?
Misleading questions
Post event discussion
anxiety
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what is post event discussion?
Includes conversations a witness has with either a co-witness or an interviewer
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what can post event discussion cause?
Memory contamination
Memory conformity
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what is memory contamination?
When discussing events (post event discussion) can contaminate a witness's memory of the event
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what is memory conformity?
Where co-witnesses might go along with what each other has said
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what impact does repeat interviewing have on eye witness tesimony?
It can allow comments from the interviewer to become incorporated into someone's memory.
This is especially prevelant when interviewing children about a crime
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who studied post event discussions?
Gabbert et al
Loftus
Bodner et al
Skagerberg and Wright
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what did Gabbert et al study?
Post event discussions
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what was the procedure of Gabbert et al's post event discussion study?
- put ppts in pairs who watched a different video of the same event
- the videos were filmed from different perspectives, meaning each person had different details
- In condition one, they were encouraged to discuss, in the control group they weren't allowed to discuss
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what was the findings of Gabbert et al's post event discussion study?
71% of those who had discussed make mistakes when recalling information
0% of those who hadnt discussed made mistakes
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what did Bodner et al find in their post event discussion study?
Found that the impact of post-event discussion can be reduced if ppts are warned about the impact.
Recall was more accurate for the ppts who were warned that anything they hear from a co-witness is second hand
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what was the procedure for Skagerberg and Wrights post event discussion study?
- Ppts were influenced by postevent discussion about the description of a mugger in a video.
- There were two videos, where the colour of the muggers hair was either light/dark brown
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what did Bodner et al study?
Post event discussion
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what did Skagerberg and wright study?
Post event discussion
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what did Skagerberg and Wright find in their post event discussion study?
- Most ppts reported a blend of the two clips, following the post event discussion
- They suggest that the memories had been contaminated by the discussion and that the ppts responses were not altered by memory conformity
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what did Skagerberg and Wright suggest?
Ppts memory had been contaminated by discussion, not altered by memory conformity
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who developed the enhanced cognitive interview?
Fisher et al
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what did Fisher et al develop?
Enhanced cognitive interview
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what was the enhanced cognitive interview in response to?
In response to police officers lacking the necessary skills to deliver the congitive interview effectively
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what does the enhanced cognitive interview include?
It includes an emphasis on allowing the witness to control the flow of information, avoiding interruptions, and reminding the witness to speak slowly and avoid guessing.
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what was the modified cognitive interview developed for?
For use with children and stresses, building a trusting relationship and removing the 'change perspective' component as children find it difficult.
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what are the 4 pillars of the cognitive interview
- Mental reinstatement of context
- Witnesses should report everything
- Recall event in different orders
- Change perspectives
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what did Fisher and Geiselman do?
Reviewed memory literature and found memory was better with cues.
They provided the cognitive interviews
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what is reinstatement of context
Remember the environment and emotions involved
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what is report everything?
Getting the witness to report everything, even if it is a tiny detail
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what is changing the order of events?
Getting the witness to recall information in a different order than what it actually happened.
This stops any schemas of what they assumed happened
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what is recalling from different perspectives?
Witnesses should recall incdent from multiple different perspectives to encourage them to examine their memories carefully
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what is a schema?
Mental representation of knowledge, information and world
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who gave strengths of the cognitive interview?
Mellow and FIsher 1966 (individual differences)
Kohnken et al 1999 (meta-analysis
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what did Mellow and Fisher say (support cognitive interview)?
- when the cognitive interview and normal interviews are used on 72 year olds and 22 year olds, cognitive interview was better for both
- cognitive interview is representative and can be used for different ages
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what did Mellow and Fisher suggest about the cognitive interview?
cognitive interview is representative and can be used for different ages
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who did Mellow and Fisher use interview techniques on?
72 year olds and 22 year olds
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what did Kohnken et al do?
A meta-analysis on 53 studies using cognitive interview
- found an increase of 34% in correct information in cognitive interview than normla interview
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who said a weakness for the cognitive interview?
Kebbel and Wagstaff 1996
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what did Kebbel and Wagstaff say?
- different police forces use different cogntivie interview techniques - difficult to compare effectiveness
- CI takes a long term - police only report essential info
- CI requires lots of training - hard for police to complete
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what are the strengths of Gabbert et al's study?
It has good population validity as it tested two different population ages.
Shows that post-event discussion can affect both younger and older people
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what are the weaknesses of Gabbert et al's study?
- Lacks ecological validity as the ppts knew they were in an experiment
- results dont reflect everyday examples of crime as ppts were shown a video which isnt as emotionally arousing
- is doesnt show why memories become distorted
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who provided research findings for the enhanced cognitive interview?
- Fisher et al (superior results)
- Coker (more accurate details)
- Holliday (modified version is more accurate with children)
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