Memory

Question 1

Who was the multi store model of memory devised by and what are the 3 permanent structures

Answer 1

Atkinson and shiffrin 1968

-sensory register
-short term memory
-long term memory

Question 2

What is the coding,capacity and duration of the sensory register

Answer 2

Coding- information is stored in raw unprocessed form with separate sensory stores for different sensory inputs.
-echoed store for auditory info, iconic store for visual information and haptic store for tactile info

Capacity- very large and information is stored in an unprocessed highly detailed ever changing format

Duration- limited duration

Question 3

What is the coding, capacity and duration of the STM

Answer 3

Coding- information arrives from SR in raw from then encoded into form STM can more easily deal with. Can be coded visually, acoustically or semantically

Capacity- limited capacity as only a small amount of information is held in the store. Between 5-9 items. Capacity can be increased through chunking.

Duration- 18-30s and can be extended with rehearsal and if done long enough will transfer into LTM

Question 4

What is the coding capacity and duration of LTM

Answer 4

Coding- mainly semantic
Capacity- unlimited however may be lost to decay and interference
Duration- can last a lifetime

Question 5

Evaluate the positives of the msm (3)

Answer 5

Positives
- there is considerable research evidence for the existence of the separate memory stores of the sr, stm, LTM
-model is supported by amnesia cases as patients either lose stm or LTM abilities but not both which supports the idea that stm and LTM are separate memory stores
- serial position effect supports the msms idea of there being separate LTM and stm stores

Question 6

Evaluate the criticisms of the msm (3)

Answer 6

-it is oversimplified as it assumes there are single stm and LTM stores . Research indicates several types of sounds

Question 7

Who devised the working memory model and what is it

Answer 7

Baddley and hitch 1974

-multi component working memory of initially 3 components and the 4th was added in 2000
-central executive, visuo-spatial sketchpad, phonological loo- and the 4th was episodic buffer

Question 8

What is the central executive in the WMM

Answer 8

-component of wmm that oversees and co-ordinates the components of working memory
-processes information in all sensory form, directs information to the models slave system and collects responses
-limited capacity can only cope with one strand of info at a time - it therefore selectively attends to particular types of information, attaining a balance between tasks when attention needs to be divided between them example talking while driving.

Question 9

What is the research behind the central executive in the wmm

Answer 9

Baddley 1996- discovered participants found it difficult to generate lists of random numbers while simultaneously switching between pressing numbers and letters on a keyboard suggesting the two tasks were competing for CE
-this supports the idea of the CE being limited in capacity and only being able to cope with one type of information at a time

Question 10

What is the phonological loop in the WMM

Answer 10

Deals with auditory information and the order of the information
- baddeley 1986- divided PL into two sub parts- primary acoustic store which stores words recently heard and articulatory process which keeps information in the PL through a sub vocal repetition of information and is linked to speech production

Question 11

What was the research behind the phonological loop

Answer 11

Baddeley 1975- reported on the word length effect where participants recalled more short words in serial order than longer words which supported the idea that capacity of the PL is set by how long it takes to say words rather than the actual number of words

Question 12

What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 12

Handles non phonological information and is a temporary store for the visual and spatial items and the relationships between them. The VSS helps individuals to navigate around and interact with their physical environment with information being coded and rehearsed through the use of mental pictures

LOGIE 1955 -suggest subdividing the store into a visual cache which stores visual material about form and colour and an inner scribe which handle spatial relationships and rehearses and transfers information in the casual cache to the CE

Question 13

What what is the research behind the visuo spatial sketchpad?

Answer 13

GATHERCOLE and BADDELEY 1993-found participants had difficulty simultaneously tracking a moving point of light and describing the angles on a hollow F because both tasks involved the VSS. Other participants had little difficulty in tracking the light and performing a simultaneous verbal task as both tasks involved using the VSSNPL indicating the VSS to be a separate slave system.

Question 14

What is the episodic buffer?

Answer 14

Component of WMM that serves as a temporary store of integrated information from the central executive phonological loop visuo spatial sketchpad and LTM
-It was introduced to explain how it is possible to temporarily store information and combined together from the CE the PL the VSSN LTM

Question 15

What is research behind the episodic buffer?

Answer 15

PRABHAKARAN ET AL- used FMRI scans to find greater right frontal brain activation for combine verbal and spatial information but greater posterior activation for non-combined information providing biological evidence of an EB that allows temporary storage of integrated information

Question 16

What are the three types of long-term memory?

Answer 16

Episodic LTM
Semantic LTM
Procedural LTM

Question 17

What is episodic LTM and who was it suggested by?

Answer 17

-suggested by ENDEL TULVING 1972
-Memory that gives individuals an autobiographical record of personal experiences- events occurring in an individual’s life
-The strength of episodic memory is influenced by emotions present at the time the memory is coded for example, traumatic events are often well recorded due to their high emotional content
-The prefrontal cortex brain area is associated with initial coding of episodic memories with the consolidation and storage of memories associated with Neo cortex. Memories of the different parts of an event are located in the different visual auditory olfactory etc areas of the brain but are connected together in the hippocampusto create a memory of an episode rather than remaining a collection of separate memories.

Question 18

Evaluate the WMM

Question 19

What is semantic LTM

Answer 19

-contains knowledge individual has learned
-facts, concepts, meanings
-strength of it, like episodic, is positively associated either the degree of processing occurring during coding, though in general, semantic memories are better sustained over time than episodic
-episodic memory underpins semantic memory

Question 20

What is procedural LTM

Answer 20

-implicit memory permitting individuals to perform learned tasks with little conscious thought, e.g riding bike
-as it doesn’t require conscious thought, it permits people to simultaneously perform other cognitive tasks that require attention

Question 21

What was the case of Clive wearing

Answer 21

Unable to remember things from the short term, however remembers events from before his brain-damaging accident, e.g. wife, children, piano.
Supports MSM as it presents STM and LTM as separate stores.
Lacks generalisability due to it being the experience of a unique individual - not representative of the target population.

Question 22

What does cohen argue

Answer 22

Argues there are only two stores: declarative (semantic and episodic) and non declarative (procedural)

Question 23

What did Buckner and Peterson find about brain scans

Answer 23

concluded that semantic memory is located in the left side of the prefrontal cortex and episodic memory on the right.

Question 24

However, what did tulving argue about brain scans ?

Answer 24

other research links the left prefrontal cortex with encoding of episodic memories and the right prefrontal cortex with episodic retrieval

Question 25

What did belleville et al do

Answer 25

devised an intervention to improve episodic memories in older people. The trained participants performed better on a test of episodic memory after training than a control group.
•This shows that distinguishing between types of LTM enables specific treatments to be developed.

Question 26

What did tulving believe in 2002

Answer 26

that episodic memory is a ‘specialised subcategory’ of semantic memory showed that some people with amnesia have a functioning semantic memory alongside a damaged episodic memory. But he also concluded it is not possible to have a functioning episodic memory with a damaged semantic memory.

Question 27

What is the interference theory

Answer 27

-sees forgetting as due to information in LTM becoming confused with or disrupted by other information during coding, leading to inaccurate recall

Question 28

What are the two forms of interference

Answer 28

Proactive interference- information stored previously interferes with an attempt to recall something new-for example the memory of an old phone number disrupts attempt to record a new phone number

Retroactive interference -occurs when coding new information disrupt information stored previously-for example the memory of a new car registration number prevents recall of a previous one

Question 29

What is research backing the interference theory

Answer 29

Baddeley and hitch 1977

Question 30

What are 3 evaluation points for interference theory

Answer 30

-only explains forgetting when two bits of info are similar
-research tends to use lab experiments based around artificial tasks- lacks ecological validity
-it does not clearly identify cognitive processes at work

Question 31

What is cue dependent forgetting

Answer 31

-occurs when info is still in LTM but can not be accessed. Sees recall as dependent upon retrieval cues.
TULVING 1973- explained this as encoding-specificity principle- recall is hindered if context of recall is different to that at coding and effectiveness of retrieval cue depends on how overloaded it is, how deep the processing of cue was and how well it fits info associated with it

Question 32

What are the two types of cue dependent forgetting

Answer 32

Context dependent failure- occurs with external retrieval cues with forgetting occurring when external environment is different at recall from how it was at coding- e.g getting fewer marks in test sat in unfamiliar hall than familiar classroom
RESEARCH- godden and Baddley 1975

State dependent failure- occurs with internal retrieval cues, with forgetting occurring when an individual’s internal environment is dissimilar at recall to when info was coded- e.g trying to recall info learned while sober when you are drunk
RESEARCH- overton 1972

Question 33

What are 4 evaluations of CDF

Answer 33

-many studies are lab based not like everyday memory tasks
-godden and Baddley’s findings only occurred when divers had to free recall info learned. When given
-

Question 34

What is repression

Answer 34

Motivated forgetting where emotionally threatening events are thought to be banished into the unconscious mind to prevent feelings of anxiety they may cause

Question 35

What is research behind repression

Answer 35

Williams 1994-

Question 36

What are 3 evaluations of repression

Question 37

What is eyewitness testimony

Answer 37

Evidence provided by those recalling an event who were present when the event took place

Question 38

What is schema

Answer 38

Bartlett 1932- stated memories aren’t accurate snapshots of events, but are reconstructions of events, influenced by schemas, ready-made expectations based on previous experiences, moods, existing knowledge, context, attitudes and stereotypes. Schemas are used to make sense of the world by ‘filling in the gaps’ in our knowledge and simplifying processing of information . Affects reliability of EWT bcs witnesses aren’t merely recalling facts as they happened, instead they’re reconstructing memories that are biased by schemas active at time of recall leading to potentially false memories

Question 39

What is misleading information and how does it affect accuracy of EWT

Answer 39

Information that suggests a desired response
-affects ewt in form of leading questions and post event discussion.
-it has been found to be more able to create false memories the more believable, emotionally arousing and subtle it is

Question 40

What is a leading question

Answer 40

Questions that increase likelihood that an individuals schemas will influence them to give a desired answer

Question 41

What is a post event discussion

Answer 41

Concerns misleading info being added to a memory after event has occurred and false memories can be stimulated by misleading post event discussions

Question 42

What is research behind factors accuracy of ewt

Question 43

What are 5 evaluations of factors affecting accuracy of ewt

Question 44

What is anxiety and how does it affect accuracy of EWT

Answer 44

Unpleasant state of emotional arousal that can affect memory of events experienced
-weapons effect

Question 45

What is research for anxiety

Question 46

What is evaluation for anxiety

Question 47

What is the cognitive interview

Answer 47

Developed by fisher and geiselman 1992, series of memory retrieval and communication techniques designed to improve recall in police interviews

Question 48

What is research behind CI

Question 49

What is enhanced cognitive interview

Question 50

What is the research behind ECI

Question 51

What is the evaluation for CI