Memory Flashcards
What are the 3 stores in the MSM?
- Sensory register
- STM
3.LTM
What are the 3 features you need to remember of each store in the MSM?
- Coding
- Capacity
- Duration
What type of coding does the sensory register use?
Information is stored in an unprocessed form and is modality specific
What was the aim of sperlings study?
To investigate capacity and duration of the sensory register
What was the method used in sperlings study into the sensory register?
Participants were flashed a 3x4 grid of letters on a screen for 50 milliseconds. Participants were then asked to recall as many letters as they remember. He then asked participants to recall single rows of letters
What were the results of sperlings study into the sensory register?
When asked to recall as many letters as they could participants could remember about 4 letters, when asked to recall rows participants could remember about 3 letters. This information decayed rapidly
What did sperling conclude from his study?
The capacity of the sensory register is a minimum of 4 items and duration lasts about 250/500 milliseconds
What are the evaluation points of sperlings study into sensory register? AO3
+ High control
- low ecological validity
How does sperlings study have high control? AO3
P: a strength of sperlings research is that it is a lab experiment and therefore has high control
E: for example, all participants had the same experience since they were all shown the same letters for the same ammount of time and were given the same standardised instructions in a controlled environment
E: this is a strength of the study as the results are unlikely to have been affected by confounding variables and therefore has high internal validity
How does sperlings study have low ecological validity? AO3
P: a limitation of sperlings study is that it has low ecological validity
E: for example, in sperlings research participants are shown random letters in a lab and asked to recall them which is highly artificial as most information won’t be presented like this in real life situations
E: this is a limitation because the findings may be difficult to generalise to how the sensory memory works in real life
What type of codings is used in the STM?
Acoustic (sound)
What’s the duration of the STM?
18-30 seconds
What is the capacity of the STM?
7+-2
What was the aim of Millers study into STM?
To investigate the capacity of STM
What was the method used in millers study into the STM?
Miller used a digit span technique consisting of participants hearing a list of numbers and trying to recall them in the correct order
What were the results of Millers study into STM?
The span of STM is 7+/-2 and that if people chunk together information they can remember more
What was concluded from Millers study into STM?
The capacity of the STM is 7+/-2
What was the aim of Peterson and Petersons study into STM?
To investigate the duration of the STM
What method did Peterson and Peterson use in their study into the STM?
24 undergraduate students were presented a consonant trigram. Rehearsal was prevented by being asked to count backwards in 3s from a specific number. After intervals of 3,6,9 etc participants were stopped and asked to recall the trigram
What were the results of Peterson and petersons study?
After 3 secs delay 80% recall then after 18 secs 10% recall and after 30 secs 0% recall
What was concluded from peterson and petersons study into the STM?
The duration of the STM is between 18-30 seconds if maintenance rehearsal is prevented
What are the evaluation points of Peterson and Petersons study into the duration of the STM? AO3
+ high control
- low ecological validity
How does Peterson and Petersons study have high control? AO3
P: a strength of Peterson and Petersons study is that it is a lab experiment so therefore establishes cause and effect
E: as this experiment had high control over extraneous variables such as participants having standardised instructions, we can be confident that the IV (number of seconds prevented from rehearsing) affected the DV (if the trigram was recalled accurately or not)
E: this is a strength of the study as the results are unlikely to be affected by extraneous variables so we can be confident that the duration of the STM is 18-30 seconds
How does Peterson and Petersons study have low ecological validity? AO3
P: a limitation of Peterson and Petersons research is that it has low ecological validity
E: for example, the participants were presented with a trigram and recalling it is an artificial and simple task which does not test the true complexity of memory
E: this is a limitation because Peterson and Petersons results cannot be necessarily generalised to real life and therefore might not provide externally valid support for the claim that the duration of the STM is limited to approximately 18-30 seconds
How are individual difference a limitation of Millers study into the capacity of the STM? AO3
P: a limitation of the claim that the STM can hold 7+/-2 pieces of information is that there are individual differences in memory capacity depending on factors such as age
E: for example, Jacob’s found that the mean digits an 8 year old could remember was 6.6 compared to 8.6 in a 19 year olds. He also found that people found it easier to recall numbers than letters as the average span for letters was 7.3 compared to 9.3 for numbers
E: this is a limitation because the assumption that all individuals have a STM that can hold between 5 and 9 pieces of information is over simplistic and may not generalise to how everybody’s STM works
L: the studies may not explain how most people’s STM works and therefore is not a fully valid theory of STM
What type of coding is used in the LTM?
Semantic
What is the duration of the LTM?
Lifelong
What is the capacity of the LTM?
Unlimited
What was the aim of Bahricks study into LTM?
To investigate the length of time that memories can be held in the LTM
What was the method used in Bahricks study into the LTM?
Investigators interviewed graduates from a high school over a 50 year period. 392 graduates were shown a set of photographs from their high school yearbook and participants were split into 2 groups:
- photo recognition group, participants given a list of names and asked to select the name which matched the person in the photo
- recall group, participants asked to name the person in the photo without a list
What were the results of Bahricks study into the LTM?
Photo recognition group
- 15 years - 90% could accurately match
- 48 years - 70% could accurately match
Recall group
- 15 years - 60% could accurately match
- 48 years - 30% could accurately match
What was concluded from Bahricks study into the LTM?
The duration of the LTM can last along time, atleast 34 years based on evidence from this study
What are the evaluation points of Bahricks study into the LTM? AO3
+ high ecological validity
- low control
How is having high ecological validity a strength of Bahricks study into the LTM? AO3
P: a strength of Bahricks study is that it has high ecological validity
E: unlike many memory experiments, the study has meaningful stimuli material (high school year book) and tested people’s memory in real life situations
E: this is a strength because it provides valuable real life evidence into the duration of the LTM being life long
How does Bahricks study into the LTM have low control? AO3
P: a limitation of Bahricks study is that it has low control over extraneous variables
E: it is possible that participants identification of classmates may have been affected by extraneous variables e.g. if participants had seen old classmates more recently than when they had left high school
E: this is a limitation because Bahricks conclusion may not have high internal validity
What was the aim of Baddeleys study into the LTM and STM?
To Investigate coding in the LTM and STM
What was the Method of baddeleys study into coding of the LTM and STM?
British housewives were divided into 4 conditions and were shown a list of 10 words either:
1. Acoustically similar
2. Acoustically dissimilar
3. Semantically similar
4. Semantically dissimilar
In STM study participants were asked to immediately recall the 10 words and in the LTM they were given an interval of 20 minutes to complete another task then recall them
What were the results of Baddeleys study into coding of LTM and STM?
LTM recall was much worse for semantically similar than semantically dissimilar
STM recall was much worse for acoustically similar than acoustically dissimilar
What did Baddeley conclude about coding in LTM and STM?
Coding in LTM is mainly semantic
Coding in STM is acoustic
What are the evaluation points of Baddeleys study into coding in STM and LTM? AO3
+ high control
- low ecological validity
- low population validity
How is high control a strength of Baddeleys study into coding in LTM and STM? AO3
P: Baddeleys study is a lab experiment and therefore establishes cause and effect
E: as a lab experiment this study had high control over extraneous variables so we can be confident that the IV (condition acoustic / semantic) affected the DV (number of words recalled)
E: this is a strength as the results are unlikely to have been affected by confounding variables so we can be confident that coding in LTM is semantic and in STM is acoustic
How does Baddeleys study into coding of STM and LTM have low ecological validity? AO3
P: a limitation of Baddeleys research is that it has low ecological validity
E: for example, recalling words from a list is an artificial and simple task and does not test the true complexity of memory
E: this is a limitation as the results may not be generalisable so might not be valid support for the claim that coding is semantic in LTM and acoustic in STM
How does Baddeleys study into coding of LTM and STM have low population validity? AO3
P: a limitation of Baddeleys research is that it has low population validity
E: since the sample consisted of British housewives it is likely the sample does not represent all people in society as the Memories of such individuals may operate differently
E: this is a limitation because the findings that the STM is coded acoustically and the LTM is coded semantically may be difficult to generalise to other people in society
What are the evaluation points of the MSM? AO3
+ supported by case study of Clive wearing
+ supported by Glanzer and cunitz
- flash bulb memories
- contradicted by case study of KF
How does the case study of Clive wearing support the MSM? AO3
P: a strength of the MSM is that it is supported by the case study of Clive wearing
E: Clive wearings memory restarted once the time span of the STM elapsed which shows that the STM works but his LTM was damaged and he could not recall some long term memories such as the names of the his children
E: these findings support the idea that the STM and LTM are separate stores and that one can be damaged and the other can remain intact
How does glanzer and cunitz study support the MSM? AO3
P: a strength of the MSM is that it is supported by glanzer and cunitz
E: glanzer and cunitz asked participants to recall words from a list and found that when participants recalled words they tended to recall words from the beginning and end of the word. The words at the start are linked to the LTM (primacy effect) and the words at the end of the list are linked to the STM (recency effect)
E: this is a strength of the MSM as it suggests that the LTM and STM are different stores as the model suggests so the MSM is a valid explanation of how memory works
How are flashbulb memories a limitation of the MSM? AO3
P: a limitation of the MSM is that it overemphasises the role of rehearsal in forming long term memories
E: may psychologists believe rehearsal to be a too simple process to account for the transfer of information from the STM to the LTM, for example flashbulb memories can be recalled easily without any need for recall.
E: this is a limitation because it would seem that material does not just pass from the STM to the LTM by being rehearsed as the MSM suggests so the MSM is not a valid explanation of how memory works
How does the case study of KF contradict the MSM? AO3
P: a limitation of the MSM is that it is contradicted by the case study of KF
E: KF had poor STM for digits when they were read out but had an ordinary STM when he read the digits to himself
E: this is a limitation of the STM because it suggests that the STM is not unitary but instead split into visual and acoustic stores. This therefore makes one of the claims of the MSM invalid
What is the central executive?
The organiser of the STM, attends all incoming information and decides which information goes to which component. The CE has limited capacity and codes information in all sensory forms
What is the phonological loop?
The PL deals with auditory information so the coding is acoustic. The capacity of the PL is limited
What 2 stores is the phonological loop divided into?
- The phonological store
- The articulatory loop
What is the function of the phonological store?
Stores the words you hear
What is the function of the articulatory loop?
Allows maintenance rehearsal and has a capacity of two seconds worth of what you say
What is the function of the visuaspatial sketch pad?
Stores visual and spatial information, dealing with what an item looks like and physical relations between them. The VSS has a limited capacity of 3/4 items
What is the Visuospatial sketchpad split into?
The visual cache
The inner scribe
What is the function of the visual cache?
Stores visual data
What is the function of the inner scribe?
Records arrangement of objects in visual field
What is the function of the episodic buffer?
Acts as a temporary backup store, also recalls material from LTM and integrates the information into other components of STM. Has a limited capacity
What are the evaluation points of the WMM? AO3
+ supported by research - baddeley
+ supported by case study of KF
- little known about central executive
- STM is difficult to study
How does Baddeley et als study support the WMM? AO3
P: a strength of the WMM is that it is supported by research using the dual task technique
E: Baddeley et al found that participants could successfully track a spot of light and complete a verbal task simultaneously but were less successful when asked to track a spot of light and describe the letter F since both tasks use the VSS
E: this supports the WMM as a valid explanation of memory since it supports the claim that the STM is not unitary.
How does the case study of KF support the WMM? AO3
P: a strength of the WMM is that it is supported by the case study of KF
E: KF suffered brain damage after a stroke following a motorcycle accident. KF had poor STM ability for auditory information but could process visual information. This was demonstrated through his immediate recall of letters and digits being better when he read them compared to when they were read to him. This suggests that the phonological loop had been damaged but his VSS was intact
E: thus supports the WMM as a valid explanation of memory because it supports the existence of separate visual and acoustic stores as the model suggests
How is it a limitation of the WMM that there is little known about the central executive? AO3
P: a limitation of the working memory model is that very little research has been conducted on the central executive and therefore have little evidence on its role in STM
E: the central executive is very hard to study and we therefore cannot be sure that it does indeed monitor and coordinate the systems in a way the theory suggests
E: this is a limitation because the claims made by Baddeley and Hitch about the Central executive may not be valid
How is it a limitation of the WMM that the STM is hard to study? AO3
P: a limitation of the WMM is that the STM is difficult to study
E: as STM has limited duration of up to 30 seconds, it might not be possible to devise an experimental method that works quickly enough to test its working. Also tasks given to participants to test the STM have low ecological validity, as they are not tasks performed in everyday living
E: this is a limitation because any experimental evidence relating to the STM might not be valid
What are the 3 types of LTM?
- Episodic
- Semantic
- Procedural
Define episodic LTM
A long term memory store for personal events like when events occurred
Define semantic LTM
A long term memory store for our knowledge of the world e.g. definitions of words and concepts
Define procedural LTM
A long term memory store for our knowledge of actions and skills e.g. how to ride a bike
What 2 types of LTM are explicit?
Episodic / semantic
Where is the episodic LTM store located?
Hippocampus, temporal lobe and frontal lobe
Where is the semantic LTM store located?
Temporal lobe
Where is the procedural LTM store located?
Cerebellum and motor cortex
What was the aim of Tulvings study into LTM? AO1
To investigate whether episodic and semantic tasks were processed differently
What was the sample used in Tulvings study into LTM? AO1
6 participants
What was the method used in Tulvings study into LTM? AO1
The 6 participants were injected with radioactive gold which would be detected by using a gamma ray detector. Participants then thought about semantic memories or episodic memories. Participants would start thinking about a topic and 60 seconds later were injected with the gold. They were then scanned 8 seconds later when the gold would have got to the brain
What were the results of Tulvings study into types of LTM? AO1
The two different types of tasks provided different patterns of blood flow in the brain. Episodic memories were associated with increased blood flow in the frontal lobes of the cortex and semantic memories were associated with increased blood flow in the temporal lobe
What was concluded from Tulvings study into types of LTM? AO1
Episodic and semantic LTMs seem to involve different parts of the brain and are therefore separate parts of the LTM suggesting a biological basis for differences in LTM
What are the evaluation points of the different types of LTM? AO3
+ lab experiment / high control
- sample size
+ supported by case study of Clive Wearing
+ supported by PET scans
How is having high control a strength of Tulvings study into types of LTM? AO3
P: a strength of Tulvings study is that it is a lab experiment so therefore establishes cause and effect
E: as this lab experiment had high control over extraneous variables we can be confident that the IV (whether participants recalled episodic or semantic memories) affected the DV (location of increased blood flow in the brain)
E: this is a strength of the study since results are unlikely to be affected by confounding variables so we can be confident that the conclusion, episodic and semantic LTM involve different parts of the brain and the LTM is divided into separate parts, is internally valid
How is the sample of Tulvings study a limitation? AO3
P: a limitation of Tulvings research is that it has low population validity
E: for example, the sample consists of 6 participants which is a very small sample size so it is unlikely to provide a good representation of the population. It could be that the individuals memories work differently to other people’s LTM memories
E: this is a limitation because it may be difficult to generalise findings that LTM does use different areas of the brain to other people’s. In addition because the sample size is small it can reduce the confidence the researchers have in the conclusion being valid
How does the case study of Clive wearing support the claim of the LTM being divided? AO3
P: a strength of the claim that we have different types of LTM comes from case studies such as Clive Wearing
E: Clive Wearing was able to play the piano and understood what a piano was but could not remember having learned to play it. Playing the piano is an example of procedural memory, knowing what a piano is, is an example of semantic memory and remembering piano lessons is an example of episodic memory
E: therefore the case study of Clive Wearing provides evidence that the claim episodic semantic and procedural memories are separate systems is valid
How do PET scans support the claim that LTM is stored in different areas of the brain? AO3
P: a strength of the claim that LTM are stored in different areas of the brain is supported by research using PET scans
E: Tulving asked participants to perform various memory tasks while being scanned using a PET scanner. They found that episodic and semantic memories were both recalled from an area of the brain known as the prefrontal cortex. This is split into 2 by the hemispheres, the left involving semantic recall and the right involving episodic recall
E: this is a strength because it demonstrates that LTM is separated into different stores and that they are located in different areas of the brain
What are the 2 explanations for forgetting?
- Proactive and retroactive interference
- Retrieval failure due to absence of cues
Define proactive interference
Forgetting occurs when older memories block the recall of newer memories e.g. teacher learned so many names in last she has difficulty remembering names of current class
Define retroactive interference
Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories e.g. teacher has learned so many new names she has difficulty remembering names of students from previous year
What was the aim of Postman’s study into forgetting?
To investigate how retroactive interference affects learning
What was the method used in postman’s study into retroactive interference?
A lab experiment where participants were split into 2 groups and had to remember a list of paired words
Group A also had to learn another list of words where the 2nd paired word is different
Group B were not given a 2nd list
All participants were asked to recall the words on the first list
What were the results of Postman’s study into retroactive interference?
The recall of the control group was more accurate than that of the experimental group
What was concluded from postman’s study into retroactive interference?
Learning items in the 2nd list interfered with participants ability to recall the list, this is an example of retroactive interference.
What was the aim of Keppel and Underwoods study into forgetting?
To examine the effect of proactive interference on LTM in a study reflecting Peterson and Peterson consonant trigram experiment
What was the method used in keppel and underwoods study into proactive interference?
Participants were presented meaningless 3 letter consonant trigrams and to prevent rehearsal had to count backwards in 3s before recalling. Participants were asked to return at a later stage to take part in a few trials involving learning new trigrams
What were the results of Keppel and Underwoods study into proactive interference?
Typically participants recalled trigrams which were presented first and were poor at recalling later trigrams as a result of earlier learning interfering with later learning
What was concluded from Keppel and underwoods study into proactive interference?
The results suggest that proactive interference occurred because memory for earlier consonants interfered with memory for new consonants
What are the evaluation points of interference? AO3
+ supported by postman
+ supported by Keppel and underwood
- lab experiments have low ecological validity
- only explains forgetting when memories are similar
How does Postman support retroactive interference? AO3
P: a strength of the interference theory is that there is evidence from laboratory studies to support it
E: postman asked participants to learn a list of word pairs and found that recall for original list was poorest when participants were asked to recall a 2nd list of words compared to participants who were not asked to learn a 2nd list of words
E: this is a strength of interference because the findings demonstrate forgetting occurs when one memory blocks another as the theory claims which means the theory is valid
How does Keppel and Underwood support the theory of interference? AO3
P: a strength of interference theory is that there is evidence from laboratory experiments to support it
E: Keppel and underwood found that participants were able to remember trigrams well in the first trials but when participants came back to learn new trigrams their recall was poor showing that interference prevented the learning of new trigrams. The trigrams in the initial trial were remembered well since there was no prior information preceding it but the later trigrams were not remembered well since earlier learning interfered
E: this is a strength of interference because the findings demonstrate that forgetting occurs when one memory blocks another as the theory claims, therefore the theory of proactive interference is valid
How do supporting studies of interference have low ecological validity? AO3
P: a limitation of interference is that studies that support the theory tend to be laboratory based and have low ecological validity
E: for example, the study by Keppel and Underwood involved participants recalling trigrams at different time intervals which is not an everyday task so doesn’t test memory in a realistic way
E: this is a limitation of interference theory because the theory may not be a valid explanation of forgetting in the real world
How is it a limitation of interference theory that it only explains forgetting when information is similar? AO3
P: a limitation of interference theory is that it only explains forgetting when two sets of information are similar
E: for example, it can only explain why we find it difficult to learn French when we know German, however this doesn’t happen very often
E: this is a limitation of interference theory because it cannot explain most of the times we forget information since it can only be applied to very specific situations
Define retrieval failure
A form of forgetting where we don’t have necessary cues to access the memory
Define cue
A trigger which allows us to access a memory
What is context dependent forgetting?
Where relevant cues in the environment are missing from the place you recall the information but were there when you learned the information. This stops you remembering the information
What is state dependent forgetting?
When there are psychological or physiological differences between how you felt when learning the information and how you feel later recalling the information. If different recall may be affected
What was the aim of Baddeleys study into forgetting?
To investigate if recall was affected when participants had to recall information in a different context to where they learned the information
What was the method used in Baddeleys study into context dependent forgetting?
Divers learned a list of words either on land or underwater then were asked to recall the words either on land or underwater, therefore resulting in 4 conditions:
Learn on land and recall on land
Learn on land and recall underwater
Learn underwater and recall on land
Learn underwater and recall underwater
What was the results of Baddeleys study into context dependent forgetting?
Accurate recall of words was 40% lower in non matching conditions
What was concluded from Baddeleys study into context dependent forgetting?
When external cues available at learning are different from the ones at recall this leads to retrieval failure
What was the aim of Darley et als study into forgetting?
To Investigate state dependent forgetting
What method was used in Darley et als study into state dependent forgetting?
Participants smoked cannabis and were asked to hide money while still high. Participants were asked to find the money either when they were still high or when they were no longer high
What were the results of Darley et als study into state dependent forgetting?
People who were still under the influence of cannabis when asked to find the money were more successful in doing so compared to people who were sober
What was concluded from Darley et als study into state dependent forgetting?
The psychological / physiological state you are in at the time of coding information needs to be a similar state to what you are in when recalling information in order to be successful in your recall
What are the evaluation points of retrieval failure? AO3
+ supported by Baddeley
+ supported by Darley
- supporting evidence has low ecological validity
- real life application
How does Baddeleys study support the retrieval failure theory? AO3
P: a strength of retrieval failure theory is that it is supported by research
E: for example, Baddeley asked divers to learn words either on land or underwater. They were then asked to recall the words either in a different context or the same. Recall was 40% lower when context was different.
E: this supports retrieval failure as a valid explanation of forgetting because the study demonstrates that forgetting can occur when a cue is absent at the time of recall
How does Darley et al support the retrieval failure theory? AO3
P: a strength of the retrieval failure theory is that it is supported by research
E: for example, Darley et al asked participants to smoke cannabis and hide some money. They found that participants still under the influence were more successful in finding the money than this who were sober
E: thus supports the retrieval failure theory as an explanation of forgetting since it demonstrates that forgetting can occur when a cue is absent at the time of recall
How is it a limitation of the retrieval failure theory that the supporting evidence has low ecological validity? AO3
P: a limitation of the retrieval failure theory is that the supporting evidence has low ecological validity
E: some experiments, like Baddeley, have been conducted using tasks such as learning and recalling a list of words which is not an everyday task
E: this is a limitation of the retrieval failure theory because we have very limited real life evidence for this theory and therefore it may not provide a valid explanation for forgetting in real life
What real life application does retrieval failure theory have? AO3
P: a strength of the retrieval failure theory is that it has practical applications
E: for example, Baddeley suggests that when we have trouble remembering something then it is worth making the effort to try recall the environment where it was learned in. This is a basic principle of cognitive interviews which aims to get more information out of EWT
E: this is a strength of retrieval failure theory since is makes a useful contribution to the real world
What are the different factors which affect accuracy of EWT?
Misleading information such as leading questions and post event discussion
Anxiety such as weapon anxiety
What was the aim of Loftus and Palmers study?
To investigate whether misleading information distorts the accuracy of an eye witnesses immediate recall
What method was used by Loftus and palmer?
45 participants were shown 7 films of traffic in a lab. After each film participants were given a questionnaire including 1 critical question “how fast were the cars going when they _____ into each other”
Participants were split into 5 conditions and were given a different verb in the critical question
What were the 5 verbs used by Loftus and Palmer in their study?
Smashed
Collided
Bumped
Hit
Contacted
( silly Collin bumped his car)
What were the results of Loftus and Palmers study?
Smashed - 40.8
Collided - 39.9
Bumped - 38.1
Hit - 34
Contacted - 31.8
What was concluded from Loftus and Palmers study?
The form of questioning can have an affect on witnesses memory. Misleading information can cause material to be altered, therefore making memory less accurate
What are the evaluation points of misleading questions affecting the accuracy of EWT recall? AO3
+ lab experiment - high control
+ practical application - cognitive interview
- low ecological validity - watched video / accident was not real
- low population validity - sample consisted of American undergraduates
How is being a lab experiment a strength of Loftus and Palmers study? AO3
P: a strength of Loftus and Palmer is that it is a lab experiment so establishes cause and effect
E: as a lab experiment, Loftus and palmer had high control over extraneous variables (all participants heard same standardised instructions) so we can be confident that the IV (verb used) affected the DV (estimated speed of car)
E: this is a strength because results of the study are unlikely to be affected by confounding variables so we can be confident that the findings that leading questions reduce accuracy of EWT has internal validity. This supports the theory that leading questions does reduce the accuracy of EWT
What practical application does Loftus and Palmers study have? AO3
P: a strength of research into misleading information is that it has practical applications
E: for example, from the research we now understand that EWT is not always accurate and leading information can distort EWT so police avoid leading questions. The study has also led to the development of cognitive interviews because the style of questions used reduce the opportunities for leading questions to be used
E: this is a strength of the research because it has made an important contribution to how the legal system works in real life
How does Loftus and palmers study have low ecological validity? AO3
P: a limitation of research into misleading information is that it has low ecological validity since testing the impact of leading questions was not done in a realistic way
E: the participants watched a video of the accident so are not likely to respond in the same way as they would if the accident was real since they were not distressed and there were no consequences for the perpetrator based on participants answers
E: this is a limitation because Loftus and Palmers results cannot necessarily be generalised to real life and may not provide valid support for the claim that leading questions reduce the accuracy of EWT
How is it a limitation that Loftus and Palmers study has low population validity? AO3
P: a limitation of research into misleading information is that it has low population validity
E: for example, the sample used consisted of American undergraduates who may have less driving experience than others which likely affected their answers. Furthermore since undergraduates are tested regularly their answers may have been affected by demand characteristics if they were aware of Loftus work at the university
E: this is a limitation because Loftus and Palmers results cannot necessarily be generalised and may not provide valid support for the claim that leading questions effect the accuracy of EWT
What was the aim of Gabberts study?
To investigate the effect of post event discussion as a factor effecting EWT
What was the method used by Gabbert et al?
Participants watched a video of the same crime but from different perspectives. They were asked either to discuss the video or to not discuss the video
What were the results of Gabbert et als study?
They found that 71% of participants who had a discussion reported aspects which they did not see but picked up from discussions compared to 0% in the control group
What was concluded from Gabberts study?
Witnesses often go along with each other, either to win social approval or because they believe other witnesses are right and they are wrong.
What were the evaluation points of Gabbert et als study? AO3
+ practical application - police should avoid letting witnesses talk to each other
+ lab experiment - high control
- low ecological validity
What practical application does PED have? AO3
P: a strength of research into PED is that it has practical applications
E: for example, from research we now understand that EWT is not accurate and PED can distort EWT so police should aim to avoid witnesses talking
E: this is a strength because it has made an important contribution to our understanding of the issue of using EWT as evidence in criminal investigations in real life
How does Gabbert et als study have low ecological validity? AO3
P: a limitation of Gabberts research is that it has low ecological validity
E: since participants watched a video of a crime they are not likely to respond in the same way as if they had witnesses the crime first hand since they would be less anxious / distressed
E: this is a limitation of Gabberts research because results cannot necessarily be generalised to real life and may not provide valid support for the claim that PED affects accuracy of EWT
How does Gabberts study have high control? AO3
P: since Gabberts study is a lab experiment it has high control so establishes cause and effect
E: due to the high control over extraneous variables in Gabberts study we can be confident that the IV ( whether participants discussed their POV or not) effects the DV ( whether participants gave information they did not see)
E: this is a strength as the results of the study are unlikely to be affected by confounding variables so we can be confident that PED affects the accuracy of EWT so increases validity of the theory that PED makes EWT less accurate
Define anxiety
A state of emotional and physical arousal
What was the aim of Johnson and Scott’s study into anxiety?
To investigate if the presence of a weapon affects the accuracy of EWT
What method was used by Johnson and Scott in the weapon focus study?
Participants were asked to sit in a waiting room where they head an argument followed by a man fleeing with either a pen covered in grease or a knife covered in blood. Participants were then asked to identify the man from a photo lineup
What were the results of Johnson and Scott’s study into weapon focus?
Mean accuracy of identifying the man was:
49% in pen condition
33% in knife condition
What was concluded from Johnson and Scott’s study into weapon focus
Weapon focus leads to less accurate recall of the person committing the crime as anxiety has effected the witnesses experience
What were the evaluation points of Johnson and Scott’s study into weapon focus? AO3
+ High control
+ practical application - police interviews
- individual differences
How is it a strength that Johnson and Scott’s study into weapon focus has High control? AO3
P: a strength of Johnson and Scott’s study is that it is a lab experiment and therefore establishes cause and effect
E: as this lab experiment had high control over extraneous variables we can be confident that the IV (presence of weapon) is directly affecting the DV (recall of offender)
E: this is a strength because the results are unlikely to be affected by confounding variables and we can therefore be confident that the claim about anxiety reducing the accuracy of EWT has internal validity
What is the practical application of Johnson and Scott’s study into weapon focus? AO3
P: a strength of research into anxiety is that it has practical applications
E: for example, from the research we now understand that EWT is not always accurate and that anxiety can distort memory so reducing the accuracy. Therefore police will need to be cautious when interviewing anxious witnesses and crimes which involve weapons
E: this is a strength of the research because it has made an important contribution to our understanding of the issue of using EWT as evidence in criminal investigations
How are individual differences a limitation of Johnson and Scott’s study? AO3
P: a limitation of research into anxiety is that they have been affected by extraneous variables
E: for example, it has been suggested that one key extraneous variable is emotional sensitivity. In a study by Bothwell et al participants were tested for personality characteristics and were labelled either neurotic or stable. It was found that stable participants showed rising levels of accuracy as stress levels increased and the opposite for neurotics.
E: this suggests that individual differences may indeed play an important role in the accuracy of EWT
What was the aim of Yuille and Cutshalls study into leading questions?
To investigate the effect of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT in a real life shooting in which 1 person was killed
What method was used in Yuille and Cutshalls study into leading questions?
21 witnesses were originally interviewed and 13 witnesses agreed to participate in a follow up interview 5 months later. In both sets of interviews verbatim accounts of the incident were obtained and follow up questions were asked to clarify detail. In the follow up the witnesses were asked two leading questions
What were the results of Yuille and Cutshalls study into leading questions?
Yuille and Cutshall found that the 13 witnesses who took part in a follow up interview were accurate in their recall with little change between the interviews. It was also found that the witnesses resisted the leading questions and those who were most deeply distressed by the incident were also the most accurate
What was concluded from Yuille and Cutshalls study into leading questions?
In real life situations, recall is not necessarily inaccurate or susceptible to leading questions. The level of distress is not related to accuracy of recall
What are the evaluation points for Yuille and Cutshalls study into leading questions? AO3
+ Yuille and Cutshall contradicts the effects of misleading information and anxiety on EWT
- Yuille and Cutshalls study has low population validity
How is Yuille and Cutshalls study a limitations of the theory that leading questions / anxiety recurs the accuracy of EWT? AO3
P: Yuille and Cutshalls research contradicts the theory that leading questions / anxiety reduces the accuracy of EWT
E: for example, Yuille and Cutshall interviewed 13 eye witnesses to a robbery in Canada. They included 2 misleading questions and found that they had no effect on the accuracy of EWT. In addition they found that the most distressed witnesses gave the most accurate EWT
E: this is a limitation since the research demonstrates that leading questions does not reduce the accuracy of EWT in real life and therefore the findings of other studies which contradict the finding may not be valid
How having a small sample a limitation of Yuille and Cutshalls study? AO3
P: a limitation of Yuille and Cutshalls research is that it uses a case study method and has low population validity
E: the sample consists of 13 witnesses to an armed robbery in Canada which is a small sample size and may not be representative of the rest of the population so there is a small ammount of data to draw conclusions from.
E: this is a limitation of the research because it may be difficult to generalise findings about leading questions to the rest of the population. Therefore the study is weak evidence to contradict the findings of other research.
Define a Schema
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations which influence cognitive processing which is developed from experience
What is a cognitive interview?
A method of interviewing eye witnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories. Cognitive interviews work because they reduce inaccuracies caused by leading questions and anxiety because they increase retrieval cues
What are the 4 main techniques used during a cognitive interview?
- Context reinstatement
- Report everything
- Recall in reverse order
- Recall from changed perspective
What are the evaluation points of cognitive interviews? AO3
+ research support by geiselman et al
- contradictory evidence by memon et al
+ useful for interviewing older witnesses
- time consuming
