Memory Flashcards
Outline and explain the MSM
The MSM was the first cognitive linear explanation of memory, devised by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). It explains how information flows through a series of storage systems, with three permanent structures in memory- the SR, STM, and LTM. Each stage differs in coding, capacity, and duration.
Outline and explain the sensory register (SR), including coding, capacity, and duration.
The SR is an automatic response to reception of sensory information by the sense organs. Information is stored in a raw, unprocessed form, with separate sensory stored for different sensory inputs. The capacity of each sensory store is very large with the information contained in a detailed, changing format. All sensory memory stores have limited duration.
Explain the short term memory (STM) including coding, capacity, and duration.
The STM temporarily stored information received from the SR, and encodes the information from its original raw from to a form the STM can easily deal with (mainly acoustic, but also visual and semantic). STM has a limited capacity, which can be increased by chunking - giving information collective meaning. The amount of time information remains in STM is a maximum of 30 seconds, which can be extended by rehearsal of the material, transferring it to the LTM.
Explain the Long Term Memory (LTM), including coding, capacity and duration.
The LTM uses mainly semantic coding (based on meaning), along with visual and acoustic. Coding will be stronger if more stimulus is processed when the memory is experienced, making the memory more retrievable. The LTM has a potentially unlimited capacity. Information could be lost due to decay and interference, but not due to limitations. The duration of memories in LTM is potentially a lifetime. Well-coded and rehearsed items in LTM are likely to last longer.
Outline and explain strengths of the MSM
The MSM provides a good starting point for the explanation of the structure and process of the memory system. It can be supported by research and data to make it more valid. For example, the study of Clive Wearing, who had the worst case of amnesia ever known. His STM was damaged and he only retained memory for 7-30 seconds. However, his LTM was intact and he remembered his wife and how to play the piano, supporting the fact that STM and LTM are separate stores.
Outline and explain weaknesses of the MSM
The MSM is over-simplified, it assumes that each of the stores works as an independent unit. STM and LTM have been found to be more complex- LTM is not just a single store, there are different types of it, and there are also several types of STM. This shows the reductionist nature of the model as it does not provide enough detail for both the STM and LTM, reducing support for the simplistic MSM. The model also does not explain why some things may be remembered with a minimal amount of rehearsal, e.g song lyrics.
Outline and explain the WMM
Baddeley and Hitch proposed a multi-component complex working STM of initially 3 components. At the head of the model is the Central Executive (CE), which selectively attends to one strand of information at a time (due to its limited capacity), permits us to switch attention between different inputs of information, and directs information in all sensory forms to the slave systems that it oversees- the PL and VSS. The Phonological Loop (PL) deals with auditory information, as much as can be spoken aloud in 2 seconds, as the capacity is limited. Baddeley divided the PL into two sub-parts: the primary acoustic store (PAS) which is the inner ear, storing words recently heard; and the articulatory process (AP) which is the inner voice, allowing subvocal repetition of information and is linked to speech production. The Visuospatial Sketchpad (VSS) is a temporary store for visual and spatial items, helping individuals navigate around and interact with their physical environment. Information is coded and rehearsed through mental pictures. Logie suggests dividing the store into a visual cache (VC), which stores visual material about form and colour, and an inner scribe (IS), which handles spatial relationships and rehearses and transfers information in the visual cache to the CE.
Baddeley added a third slave system in 2000- the Episodic Buffer (EB), as the model needs a general store to operate properly. It was introduced to explain how it is possible to temporarily store information combined together from the CE, PL, VSS, and LTM. It has no storage capacity as information only passes through it.
Evaluate the WMM
The WMM explains in depth a wider range of cognitive phenomena than the MSM. It accounts for parallel processing of different types of information, allows us to explain dual-task ability, and is supported by practical applications. Shallice and Warrington studied patient KF who could recall visual information but not verbal immediately after being presented with it, showing support that the stores are separate.
However, it is unable to explain how information actually arrives in the WM. It is limited in its application to everyday human memory. It provides a lack of clarity around the exact role of the CE, it is unlikely to be in just one part of the brain.
Outline and explain the types of LTM
Tulving suggested the existence of several types of LTm with separate functions and brain areas. Episodic and semantic are explicit- recalled if consciously thought about- and procedural is implicit- doesn’t require conscious thought to be recalled.
Episodic memory gives individuals an autobiographical record of personal experiences, and the strength of the memory is influenced by emotions present when coding- in the prefrontal cortex. Consolidation and storage of the memories are associated with the neocortex, and the visual and auditory parts of the memory come together in the hippocampus to create an episode.
Semantic memory contains all knowledge an individual has learned- facts, concepts, definitions etc. Over time, episodic memory moves to semantic as knowledge becomes separated from the event it was learned from. Coding is mainly associated with the frontal and temporal lobes.
Procedural memory allows individuals to perform learned tasks with little conscious thought. Many memories occur early in life, learning important motor skills. Coding is mainly associated with the neocortex, and it doesn’t need the hippocampus to function, unlike explicit forms of LTM.
Evaluate the types of LTM
There are case studies to support the idea of different types of LTM. Vicari et al reported on the case study of patient CL, an 8 year old girl who suffered brain damage from a removed tumour and demonstrated deficiencies in her episodic LTM functions, but was still able to create and recall semantic memories, suggesting they are different systems using different brain areas. A study found that when episodic and semantic memories were being recalled by participants, 2 different parts of the prefrontal cortex were active.
Research into types of LTM allows psychologists to target certain kinds of memory to improve people’s lives.
However, there is a lack of research on which brain areas are informed in procedural memory. It is rare to have a case of someone with brain damage that affects procedural but not explicit memory.
Explain interference theory (proactive and retroactive)
Interference theory sees forgetting as due to info in LTM becoming confused with or disrupted by other information during coding, leading to inaccurate recall. Proactive interference occurs when information stored previously interferes with an attempt to recall something new. Retroactive interference occurs when coding new information disrupts information stored previously.
Evaluate interference theory
Baddeley and Hitch got participants who played a varying number of rugby games to remember as many of the teams they had played as possible. It was found that forgetting was due more to the number of games rather than time passed between games, supporting interference theory rather than decay theory.
However, research like this tends to use laboratory experiments, lacking mundane realism. Interference theory only explains forgetting when two sets of information are similar, which does not happen very often in real life, so it lacks ecological validity.
Explain cue-dependent forgetting (context and state dependent forgetting)
Cue dependent forgetting occurs when information is still in LTM but cannot be accessed. It sees recall as dependent on accessing information by remembering the retrieval cue under which the information is stored. Context dependent failure relates to external retrieval cues, forgetting occurs when the external environment is different at recall from at coding. State dependent failure relates to internal retrieval cues, forgetting occurs when individuals internal environment is different at recall and coding.
Evaluate cue-dependent forgetting
There is a multitude of research support for CDF. Overton found that participants who learnt material either drunk or sober were worse if they were in a different internal state at recall than at coding.
CDF can also be applied to a variety of real-world application. The police can use knowledge of CDF to help jog the memory of a witness by recreating the incident, used in the CI (reinstate context).
Outline and evaluate misleading information as a factor affecting EWT
Misleading information is information that suggests a desired response, and can be in the form of leading questions or post event discussion. Leading questions increase the likelihood that an individual will be influenced to give a desired answer. Post event discussion concerns misleading information being added to a memory after the event has occurred.
Loftus and Pickrell gave 24 participants 4 stories about their childhood, one of which was false. 68% of true incidents were recalled and 29% of false ones, implying that false memories can be created from suggestion.
