Memory Flashcards
done
what is coding?
type of information in each memory store
what is coding in short-term memory?
acoustic
what is coding in the long-term memory?
semantic
what is capacity in the short term memory?
7 +/- 2
what is capacity?
amount of information kept in a memory store?
what is the capacity of the long term memory?
unlimited
what is duration?
amount of time information can be stored in each memory store
what is the duration of the short term memory?
18-30 seconds
what is the duration of the long term memory=?
unlimited
who developed the multi-store model?
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
what is the process of the multi-store model?
Sensory Memory
attention
Short Term Memory
Transfer / Retrieval / Rehearsal
Long Term Memory
what is the “Primacy effect”?
words that were first heard
they’ve been rehearsed so we can recall them from our LTM
what is the “Recency effect”?
words that were most recently heard
they are still in our STM
what are the 3 different types of memory / memory stores?
Sensory (SM)
Short Term (STM)
Long Term (LTM)
what is “encoding”?
the form in which the memory is retained
what is “capacity”?
how much info this store can retain
what is “duration”?
how long this store can retain info for
what do we have to do to remember a piece of information well?
pay attention to it
rehearse it
what are the 5 ways memory can be encoded via SM?
seeing
hearing
tasting
touching
smelling
what is “Iconic Memory”?
visual info from the eyes
stored as images
what is “Echoic Memory”?
auditory input from the ears
stored as sounds
what is “Haptic Memory”?
tactile input from the body
things you’ve touched, stored as feelings
who researched SM?
sperling (1960)
what did Sperling’s participants see?
a grid of digits for 50 milliseconds
asked to either write down all 12 items or write down a particular row
what were Sperling’s findings?
whole thing = 5 items recalled (42%)
one row = 3 items recalled (75%)
what researched the encoding of STM?
Conrad (1964)
who do Sperling’s findings suggest?
that SM cannot hold info for that long
what does Sperling (1960) support?
existence of a sensory store
what did Conrad (1964) find?
letters which are acoustically similar are harder to recall from the STM than those which are acoustically dissimilar
what does Conrad (1964) suggest?
STM mainly encodes things acoustically
who researched the capacity of the STM?
Miller (1956)
what was Miller (1956)’s conclusion?
the STM can hold ‘the magic number 7 + or - 2’
the average capacity is between 5 and 9 items
who researched the duration of the STM?
Peterson & Peterson (1959)
what was their procedure?
got students to recall combinations of 3 letters after longer and longer intervals
during intervals they were prevented from rehearsing by a counting task
what did Peterson & Peterson find?
after 3 seconds, 80% recalled correctly
after 18 seconds, fewer than 10% recalled correctly
who researched the encoding the LTM?
Beddeley (1966)
what do Peterson & Peterson’s findings suggest?
that our STM fades in under a half a minute if we are not rehearsing
what was the procedure of Baddeley (1966)?
presented lists of 10 short words one at a time
what did Baddeley (1966) find?
after 20 mins, they did poorly on the semantically similar words
what does the findings of Baddeley (1966) suggest?
that we encode LTMs according to what they mean - so we get similar - meaning things get confused
who researched the duration of LTM?
Bahricket al (1975)
what was the procedure of Bahricket al (1975)?
showed classmates photos years later
what did Bahricket al (1975) find?
90% accuracy for remembering faces & names 34 yrs after graduation
declined after 48 yrs, particularly faces
what is the serial position effect?
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
who came up with the serial position effect?
Glanzer & Cunitz (1966)
why does Glanzer & Cunitz (1966) support the MSM?
supports the idea of there being a separate STM & LTM
what do MRI scans show regarding brain scanning evidence?
which parts of the brain are being used when certain tasks are carried out
what part of the brain is active when using LTM?
the hippocampus
which part of the brain is active when using the STM?
prefrontal lobes
what does the fact that the STM and LTM have a place in the brain back up?
the existence of different stores fr different memories
that are 3 examples of patients who have suffered brain damage to their hippocampus & have memory deficits?
H.M
Clive Wearing
K.F
what does H.M, Clive Wearing and K.F’s memory loss tend to be?
selective
why does H.N, Clive Wearing and K.F support MSM?
supports ideas 9of separate stores
is K.F a limitation or a strength of the MSM?
both
who was K.F a patient to?
Shallice and Warrington (1974)
what did Shallice and Warrignton (1974) report about K.F?
that brain damaged K.F could recall verbacl but not visual information immediately after presentation
why is K.F a strength?
supports idea of separate STM
why could K.F be used as a limitation?
because he could recall verbal BUT NOT visual
creates the issues that the MSM is too simple
what else limitates the MSM?
flashbulb memories
what is a flashbulb memory?
an accurate and exceptionally long-lasting memory for the circumstances surrounding learning about a dramatic event
why are flashbulb memories a limitation of MSM?
contradicts the MSM as information appears to have gone to the LTM without rehearsehal
what are the 3 types of LTM?
episodic
semantic
Procedural
who came up with the types of LTM?
Tulving (1972)
what is episodic memory?
thoughts or experiences
based on events that occur in peoples lives
over time they move over to semantic as they become knowledge based
what is the strength of episodic memories determined by?
the emotions present at the time the memory is being coded
what part of the brain is linked to the intial coding of episodic memories?
pre-frontal cortex
what are semantic memories?
knowledge, facts, concepts, meanings
can relate to how certain objects work, their functions, appropriate behaviour or abstract concepts such as language or mathematics
what is the strength of semantic memories positively correlated with?
the strength of processing that occurs with semantic memories lasting longer than episodic memories
what are procedural memories?
skill-based
learnt through repetition and practice
why is language considered a procedural memory?
helps individuals speak using correct grammar and syntax without having to consciously give this thought
what parts of the brain are procedural memories linked to?
prefrontal and motor cortex
where has the information about Explicit and Implicit memories come from?
research on patients with amnesia
why were amnesia patients used to research Explicit and Implicit memories?
their memory for events and knowldege before the condition remain intact, but they cant store new episodic and semantic memories
what supports the different types of LTM?
brain scans = shown 3 distinct areas being active with the hippocampus and other parts of the temporal lobe such as the frontal lobe associated with episodic memory
what part type of LTM is associated with activity in the temporal lobe?
semantic
what type of LTM is associated with activity in the cerebellum and motor cortex?
procedural
who researched H.M?
Millner (1962)
what happened to H.M?
started having seizures and doctors decided to treat this by removing part of his temporal love and his hippocampus
what happened to H.M after removing his temporal lobe and hippocampus?
struggled with memory, forgot daily events nearly as fast as they occured, underestimated his own age and couldn’t remember names of people he just met
couldn’t form episodic or semantic memories
how did H.M form procedural memories?
learnt how to draw figures by looking at their reflection
what does the H.M case support?
the different stores between “knowing how” to don something and semantic knowledge-based memories or experience-based
where does support for semantic and episodic memory being separate com4 from?
Vicari et al (2007)
what was Vicari’s case study?
a young girl (CL) who suffered brain damage after the removal of a tumour found deficiencies in the ability to create new episodic memories
she was still able to create semantic memories
what is a weakness of research into different types of LTM?
they’ve been typically conducted on individual patients
findings cannot be generalised
who developed the WMM?
Alan Baddeley (1986)
why did Baddeley develop the WMM?
he believed that memory is more complex and dynamic
what is the WMM?
Central Executive
Visuospatial sketch pad
Episodic Buffer
Phonological Loop
LTM
what is the CE?
control system
where decision making happens
determines how resources are allocated
what does CE involve?
reasoning and decision making tasks
whats the capacity of the cE?
limited
what is the Visuospatial sketch pad?
Spatial and visual information
inner eye
who suggested subdivision in the VSS?
Logie (1995)
what were these subdivisions?
Visuo-cache
inner scribe for spatial relations
what is the capacity of the Visuospatial sketch pad?
limited
whats in the Phonological Loop?
Phonological Store
Articulatory Process
what is the Phonological store?
speech-based torage system
holds words you hear
inner ear
what is the decay rate of the Phonological Store?
2 secs
what is the Articulatory Process?
Verbal rehearseal system
words heard or seen are silently repeated
inner voice
what does the Articulatory Process form?
maintenance rehearsal
whats the capacity of the Articulatory Process?
limited
when did Baddeley add the EB?
2000
what is the Episodic Buffer?
Temporary storage system that allows information from the CE/PL/VSS with info from the LTM
intergrates
whats the capacity of the EB?
4 chunks
what was Baddeley & Hitch’s (1976) study?
gave participants 2 tasks to perform simultaneously
what part of the WMM was used in the ‘True of False’ task?
Central Executive
what part of the WMM was used in the ‘the the the’ task?
Articulatory Loop
what part of the WMM was used in the random digits task?
CE
AL
what were the results of the random digits task?
ToF task was slower when given the second task involving bothe the CE and AL
what did Baddeley and Hitch conclude?
completing 2 tasks that involve the same component causes difficulty
who provides evidence for the CE?
Bunge et al (2000)
what does Bunge do?
used fMRI to see which parts of the brain were most active when participants were doing 2 tasks
what did Bunge et al (2000) find?
the pre frontal cortex was active in either dual or single task conditions but there was significantly more activation in dual task condition
What’s the word length effect?
idea that people are more likely to remember words with fewer syllables
what store explains the word length effect?
PL
what clinical evidence is there that supports the WMM?
Shallice and Warrington (1970) and patient KF
why does the KF case study support the WMM?
his impairment was mainly verbal information, memory for visual info was largely unaffected
what does it show?
that there are separate STM components for visual and verbal info
what is a strength of the WMM?
it has empirical support
Baddeley (1973)
whats a limitation to the WMM?
CE
why is the CE a imitation of the WMM?
too simplistic and vague
we know the least about it
whats another limitation of the WMM?
no explanation as to how information is transferred between each system
what are the 2 types of cue dependent forgetting?
context
state
what do we do when we code a new memory?
store the information that occurred around it
who came up with the ‘Encoding Specificity Principle’?
Tulving and Thompson (1973)
what was the idea of the ‘Encoding Specificity Principle’?
the more cues a person is exposed to, environmental or mental, the more likely they are to remember
who investigated the effect of contextual cues on recall?
Tulving (1974)
who did they research?
divers
what was there procedure of Tulving’s diving study?
18 deep-sea divers had to memorise 36 unrelated words of 2 or 3 syllables
one group memorised on a beach and the other underwater
half of the beach learners were asked to recall on the beach, the other half underwater. same with the other group
what do the results of Tulving’s diving study show?
external context acted as a cue to recall as the participants recalled more words when they learnt and recalled in the same environment
What is mundane realism?
degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations
what did Smith (1979) do?
put participants in a basement room and taught a list of 20 words
they were recalled in either the basement, 5th floor and then on the 5th floor but were told to imagine they were back in the basement
what were the results of Smith (1979)?
more numbers were recalled in the basement and less numbers were recalled on the 5th floor
What is Eye Witness Testimony (EWT)?
evidence provided in court by a person who witnessed a crime, with a view to identifying the perpetrator
what is a leading question?
A question which, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer
can lead you to remember things differently
who did the car accident study 1 & 2?
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
who were the participants in car accident study 1?
5 groups of 45 students
what were they shown in the car accident study 1?
7 slides of traffic accidents
What happened after being show the slides of traffic accidents?
they were given a questionnaire and there was on critical question about how fast the cars were going with a different verb
what were the results of Tulvings car accident study 1?
contacted - 31,8 mph
hit - 34.0 mph
bumped - 38.1 mph
collided - 39.3
smashed - 40.5
who were the participants in car accident study 2?
150 students
what were they shown in the car accident study 2?
a short film that showed a multi-vehicle car accident
what were the 2 groups in the car accident study 2?
1st group: ‘how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?’
2nd group: ‘how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?’
3rd group: asked nothing
what the happened in the car accident study 2 after they were asked the questions?
they returned a week later and were asked if there was any broken glass in, even though there was none in the film
what is post-event discussion?
More than one witness where they may discuss what they have seen. This may influence the accuracy of each witness’s recall of the event.
who did the Stop Yield study?
Loftus et al (1978)
what was the Loftus et al (1978) study?
participants were shown slides of an incident with a critical slide with a red Datsun passing either a Stop or a Yield sign
participants were questioned afterwards and the interviewer had given information that was either consistent or inconsistent with the slide they’d seen
what were the results the Loftus et al (1978) study?
consistent group: (saw STOP, asked about STOP, or saw YIELD, asked about YIELD) 75%
inconsistent group: (saw STOP, asked about YIELD, or saw YIELD, asked about STOP) 41%
what did Gabbert et al (2003) do?
took 120 participants (60 students 60 older adults) and put them into pairs
showed each a video of a girl putting a book back into a University office
each person from the pairs could see an aspect of the video that the other couldn’t
participants discussed what they saw before completing a questionnaire independently
what were the results of Gabbert et al (2003)?
71% stated they had seen the girl do something which they hadn’t actually seen, was 0% in control group
60% of participants said that the girl was guilty of stealing the £10 note, even though they had not seen her do it themselves
what do the results suggest about how post-event discussion affects EWT?
highlights the issue of PED & the effect on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
what is a strength of Gabbert et al (2003)?
the were not deceived and knew they were taking part in an experiment
what is a limitation of Gabbert et al (2003)?
do not reflect everyday examples of the crime / two different populations
Why does PED affect EWT?
source monitoring
memory conformity
What is source monitoring?
a cognitive process that involves the identification and tracking of the origins or sources of information or memories.
what is memory conformity?
the distortion occurs due to conformity and the social pressure from the co-witness
what is a limitation of EWT and who proposed it?
own age bias
Anastasi and Rhodes
what is own age bias?
tendency to recall others from your own age group with a high degree of accuracy, with a lower accuracy rate for those from other age groups
what does own age bias mean as a limitation to EWT?
participants aged 55-78 years may be inaccurately represented as having lower accuracy of EWT due to the frequent use of young targets
what’s another limitation of EWT?
Demand characteristics
how do you improve the accuracy to EWT?
cognitive interviews
what is cognitive interviews?
method of interviewing eyewitnesses which is thought to be particularly effective in increasing the rates of accurate recall
what are the 4 stages of cognitive interview?
Report Everything
Reinstate the context
Change the perspective
Reverse the order
what does ‘Report Everything’ involve?
report every detail, even if it seems insignificant - it may trigger the recall of larger events
what does ‘Reinstate the context’ involve?
recalling the weather, location and mood of the day prevents context-dependent forgetting by reminding the eyewitness of their external cues
what does ‘Change the Perspective’ involve?
recalling the events from the perspective of the victim or persecutor prevents the eyewitness’ account from being affected by their own schemas or pre-convinved perceptions of how the crime, in their opinion, happened
whats the limitations of cog interviews?
may have little practical value - time-consuming and requiring specialist skills
increases the recall of incorrect information by 61% - Kohnken et al (1999) - appears counterintuitive when considering that the chief aim was to improve recall
what does ‘Reverse the order’ involve?
recalling the events in a different order reduces the ability of the eyewitness to lie and also reduces the impact of schemas on their perception of events
who developed the cognitive interviews?
Fisher et al 1987
what does cognitive interview focus on?
social dynamics of the interactions between the eyewitness and the interviewer (e.g., knowing when to make eyecontact and diminish it and increasing rapport with the eyewitness
what are the limitations of the cognitive interview?
little practical value, too time consuiming and requires specialist skills - Kebbel and Wagstaff argued that only a few hours of training in police forces is insufficent
Cognitive interview increases recall of correct information by 81% as well as incorrect information by 61% - Kohnken et al (1999) - counterintuitive
what is the strength of cognitive interviews?
more effective approach to recall information
81% of correct information recalled
Milne and Bull (2002)
what did Milne and Bull (2002) do regarding cognitive interviews?
suggested that context reinstatement and report everything produced the greatest accuracy of recall of correct information as compared to any other combinations of steps
