Memory Flashcards
What are the types of encoding?
Visual - storing info based on how it looks
Acoustic - storing info based on how it sounds
Semantic - storing info based on its meaning
What is encoding?
Changing information to be stored in our brains.
What is storage?
Keeping information in the brain for a period of time
What are the 2 types of storage?
Short term - holding between 5&9 pieces of info for up to 30 seconds
Long term - holding info for up to a lifetime
What is retrieval?
Locating stored info within our brains and recalling it.
What are the 3 types of retrieval?
Recognition - retrieving info whilst having options to choose from such as multiple choice questions
Cued recall - retrieving information whilst being given a clue
Free recall - retrieving information without cues/options (no stimulus)
Baddeley’s study of encoding - AMRC
Aim - to see how info is coded in STM and LTM
Method - gave different lists of words to groups of ppts to remember
(Group one - acoustically similar words)
(Group two - acoustically dissimilar words)
(Group three - semantically similar words)
(Group four - semantically dissimilar words)
Ppts were shown original words and asked to recall them in order
Results - ppts performed better with acoustically similar words in STM recall, ppts performed better with semantically similar words in LTM recall
Conclusion - suggests info is stored acoustically in LTM and semantically in LTM
Baddeley’s study of encoding - Evaluations
Weakness - lack of validity
Experiment took place in lab setting which was unnatural for ppts so they may have felt nervous/under pressure, leading to inaccurate results, meaning we cannot apply results due to lack of ecological validity
Strength - independent groups design
Ppts took part in one condition, meaning they couldn’t have got tired/bored which would have lead to inaccurate results. Additionally, ppts couldn’t have shown demand characteristics, meaning results were more accurate.
What is the multi-store model of memory (MSM)?
A representation of how memory works. Describes how info can move from one store to another. It is a linear sequence so info can flow backwards and forwards.
Input-Sensory store-Attention-STM-Transfer(rehearsal)-LTM
Coding, Capacity and Duration of memory stores
Sensory Store (Coding) - depends on stimulus
Sensory Store (Capacity) - very limited
Sensory Store (Duration) - less than 1 second
STM (Coding) - Acoustically
STM (Capacity) - 5-9 items
STM (Duration) - 18-30 seconds
LTM (Coding) - Semantically
LTM (Capacity) - Unlimited
LTM (Duration) - Unlimited
MSM Evaluations
Supporting - Henry Molaison
After a surgery to cure his epilepsy went wrong, HM was left unable to form new memories. He was also unable to access his LTM store, meaning STM and LTM stores are separate, otherwise both of his memory stores would have been affected. This supports the MSM model as both memory stores must be seperate.
Criticism - Patient KF
Patient KF suffered a motorbike accident and was left with damage to his STM. However, he was able to access visual info from his STM, meaning it wasn’t fully damaged, criticising the theory as it means the STM cannot be just one store as stated by the MSM model.
What are the types of long-term memory?
Episodic - our ability to recall events (episodes) that have happened in our lives, like a diary. Requires conscious effort to recall (people, places, objects, behaviours) time-stamped memories
Semantic - our knowledge of the world such as facts & general knowledge. Not time-stamped.
Procedural - memory for skills/actions we do. Can be recalled without conscious effort eg playing an instrument, driving a car etc. Difficult to explain as you are doing due to little conscious effort behind the actions.
Long-term memory types evaluations
Strength - supporting research - people who suffer from memory loss due to brain damage only remember certain things. An example is Clive Wearing, a musician who lost all types of memory except his procedural, which is a strength because it implicates that long-term memory stores are separate.
Strength - supporting library - brain scans show that there are separate parts of the brain for each of the three types of memory, showing that types of long-term memory are separate
KEY STUDY - Murdock serial position curve (AMRC)
A - to see if position of words in a list affected probability of recall.
M - 103 students tested in sessions. For each session, they listened to 20-word lists, each having 10-40 selected from 4000 most used words in English. Ppts then asked to recall words.
R - Likelihood of recall linked to position of word in list. Words at start remembered better (PRIMACY EFFECT) and words at the end remembered better (RECENCY EFFECT)
C - people more likely to remember words at start or end of list.
Murdock EVALUATIONS
Limitation - not generalisable
Murdock used only students, meaning we cannot generalise findings towards those who are not students. Limitation because we are unable to apply the findings to real life
Strength - reliable
Murdock used standardised procedures, meaning all ppts given same instructions. This means the research can be replicated to find similar results. Strength because findings are consistent and have a high reliability as it can be repeated.
What is the theory of reconstructive memory?
The theory that we actually store fragments of memories, and later “fill the gaps” often with what we expect to have happened, based on social and cultural expectations/experiences. Can lead to inaccurate/altered memories. (USE OF SCHEMAS IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND NEW INFORMATION THROUGH PAST EXPERIENCES)
Theory of Reconstructive memory EVALUATIONS
Strength - wide range of supporting evidence. War of Ghosts study shows people do reconstruct memories based on what they think would/should have happened, supporting the theory.
Limitation - lack of credibility
Bartlett conducted his own research into his own theory, therefore he may have been biased in the findings of the study. He may have adjusted results to fit his theory, meaning the results may not be accurate/credible and we cannot rely on findings too much.
(KEY STUDY) Bartlett’s War of Ghosts study - AMRC
A - to investigate how memory is reconstructed when people recall over periods of time/repeatedly.
M - used stories from another culture to see how expectations affect memory. He used serial reproductions, asking ppts to recall the story after a time period, then showing a new version of the story and asking another ppt to recall, then repeating this process. 20 university ppts from UK, story from unfamiliar culture. Kept a record of successful recalls (protocol.)
R - ppts remembered different aspects of story, interpreting it within their own frames of reference, changing facts and phrases to fit their own social and cultural expectations. Story became shorter through omissions, recalled version became very fixed.
C - People remember fragments of memories and reconstruct them based on expectations (social and cultural) to make a new memory of an event.
Bartlett’s War of Ghosts study - EVALUATIONS
Limitation - lack of generalisability
All ppts were UK students, meaning we cannot generalise the findings to the rest of the population, as they may have not acted the same way in the study. Disadvantage because we cannot apply findings to real life.
Another limitation is that Bartlett may have been biased.
Bartlett analysed each recall and decided what was accurate and what wasn’t. He therefore may have interpreted the results differently based on the fact that he believed results would be affected by cultural expectations. Weakness because we cannot trust/apply findings.
Interference study - McGeoch & McDonald (AMRC)
A - to see what impact learning a second list of words has on recalling original list of words
M - 12 ppts learned list of 10 words until they could recall with 100% accuracy, then given another list with different types of words. All ppts given same lists in different orders, to test retroactive interference.
R - recognition of original list depended on nature of second list, most similar material produced the least accurate recall.
C - interference is strongest when an intervening activity is similar, more likely to forget something if you do a similar activity soon after.
Interference study EVALUATIONS
Weakness - repeated measures design
All ppts took part in all conditions (lists) possibly leading to ppts becoming bored/ tired, leading to inaccuracies in findings. Weakness because results are not completely valid.
Weakness - lack of generalisability due to small sample size
Only 12 ppts - very difficult to generalise findings to wider population as actions of 12 people may not be similar to everybody else. Weakness as we cannot generalise/apply findings.
What is interference?
When one memory disturbs the ability to recall another, resulting in forgetting, memory distortion or both. (More likely if memories are similar.)
What are the two types of interference?
Proactive - Past memories interfering with new memories
Retroactive - Recent memories interfering with old memories
What is context of memories?
The situation in which something happens, can act as a cue to recalling info and improves accuracy of memory.
