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AQA A-Level Psychology > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

define memory

A

memory refers to the process by which we retain information about events that have happened in the past .

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2
Q

define duration of memory

A

Duration is the amount of time information can be held in memory.

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3
Q

what is duration like in STM (short term memory)?

A

Limited duration memories last for a short amount of time and disappear unless they are rehearsed.

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4
Q

what is duration like in LTM (long term memory)?

A

Duration of LTM lasts anywhere from 2 minutes to 100 years . A potentially unlimited duration and capacity

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5
Q

outline the procedure of Peterson and Peterson (1959) that supports DURATION OF STM

A

24 participants- lab experiment -artificial setting

experimenter said a consonant syllable followed by a three digit number (e.g WRT303)

participants had to immediately count backwards from the number in 35 or 45 until told to stop rehearsal of the syllable

Participants were then asked to recall the nonsense syllable

each participants we 2 proactive trials followed by eight trials - on each trial the retention interval was different e.g 3,6,8,12,15,18 seconds

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6
Q

outline the results and conclusion of Peterson and Peterson (1959) that supports DURATION OF STM

A

participants remembered 90% when there was a 3 second interval

remembered 2% when there was an 18 second interval

This suggests that when rehearsal is prevented , STM lasts about 20 seconds at most

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7
Q

outline the procedure of Bahrick et al (1975) that supports DURATION OF LTM

A

392 participants ages 17-74

recall was tested of year books:

-photo recognition - 50 photos some of which were from the participants year book - they had to identify them
-free recall test- participants had to recall all the names of their graduating class

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8
Q

outline the findings and conclusion of Bahrick et al (1975) that supports DURATION OF LTM

A

participants tested within 15 years of graduation - around 90% accurate - recognition

after 48 years - recall declined - 70% - photo recognition

free recall worse than recognition

after 15 years - free recall - 60% accurate

after 48 years - free recall - 40% accurate

LTM CAN LAST A LONG TIME POTENTIALLY A LIFE TIME

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9
Q

give a limitation of Peterson’s and Peterson’s study into Duration of STM

A

-stimulus material was artificial
-Doesn’t reflect real life memory tasks where what we are trying to remember is meaningful.
-This lacks ecological validity as there are no consequences if letters are forgotten.
-Task has no meaning- lacks mundane realism

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10
Q

What confounding variables may of effected Bahrick et al study into the duration of LTM?

A

we don’t know how often somebody looks at their yearbook

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11
Q

define capacity of memory

A

capacity is how much information can be held in a memory store

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12
Q

what is capacity like in long term memory LTM?

A

potentially unlimited capacity

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13
Q

what is capacity like in short term memory STM according to Jacobs digit span?

A

Jacobs (1887) found mean span for digits was 9.3 items whereas for letters it is 7.3

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14
Q

what is capacity like in short term memory STM according to Miller?

A

he concluded that the span of immediate span of memory the number 7 , plus 2 or minus 2

we can recall 5 words as well as recalling 5 letters - chunking - sets of digits or letters together into meaningful units to enhance capacity of STM.

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15
Q

evaluation of research into capacity of STM

A

Jacobs digit span - old experiment with confounding variables - not controlled

Miller- might have overestimated the capacity of STM

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16
Q

define coding

A

coding the format in which information is stored in the various memory stores.

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17
Q

how are memories coded in STM?

A

acoustically information is represented as sounds

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18
Q

how are memories coded in LTM?

A

semantically information is represented by its meaning

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19
Q

outline procedure into coding of memory (Baddeley)

A

Baddeleys research
4 groups of words acoustically similar / accoustically dissimilar
semantically similar/semantically dissimilar
participants were shown words and asked to recall in correct order

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20
Q

results of research into coding of memory

A

when asked to recall immediately (STM) tend to do worse with accoustically similar words - showing STM is coded accoustically

when asked to recall word lists after an interval of 20 minutes (LTM recall) they did worse with semantically similar words - suggesting LTM is coded semantically

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21
Q

what is the multi store memory model?

A

developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin and it describes the flow between three permanent storage systems of memory: the sensory register (SR), short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).

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22
Q

how does the multi store memory model work?

A

1) stimulus from the environment reaches the sensory register , most info is lost immediately.
2) we select what we pay attention to , this moves to the STM
3) sensory information moves into the STM for temporary storage, which will be encoded visually (as an image), acoustically (as a sound) .the rehersal loop maintains the information in the STM for long enough to retain it and for a LTM to form.
4) rehearsing information via the rehearsal loop helps to retain information in the STM, and consolidate it to LTM, which is predominantly encoded semantically. Information can be stored and retrieved for up to any duration

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23
Q

one strength of the multi store model of memory - supporting laboratory evidence

A

there is controlled lab studies on capacity , duration and coding that support the existence of STM and LTM
Baddeley found words that sound similar get mixed up in STM and words that have similar meaning get mixed up in LTM-supports the idea of separate STM and LTM stores.

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24
Q

one strength of the multi store memory model - supported by clinical case studies

A

case of HM supports it - hippocampus removed - his LTM. was tested over and over again but never improved , however he performed well on tests of immediate memory span STM-shows he was unable to transfer info from STM to LTM but was able to retrieve info from before the study, supports different processes in MSM

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25
Q

one limitation of the multistore memory model - methodological issues

A

in real life we form memories related to a range of useful things , e.g. peoples faces. MSM used none of these and used digits. they have no meaning attached therefore harder to remember.

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26
Q

one limitation of the multistore memory model - overly simplistic

A

case of KF shows there is more than one type of STM , KF had poor recall when digits were read to him but had much better recall when he read them to himself there are also three types of LTM - episodic-semantic - procedural
this shows MSM provides a simplistic memory model and doesn’t take into account the different types of STM and LTM

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27
Q

define episodic memory as a type of LTM

A

episodic memory is knowledge about events that happened in your life ,they are time stamped and require conscious awareness/recall

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28
Q

define procedural memory as a type of LTM

A

procedural memory is knowledge about skills actions or how we do things we can recall without conscious awareness/recall. They can be hard to explain why

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29
Q

define semantic memory as a type of LTM

A

semantic memory is a LTM store of knowledge about the world . it includes words and concepts , memory needs to be recalled deliberately not time stamped

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30
Q

how is information coded in the sensory register?

A

info is coded by the nervous system as action potentials stimulating different parts of the brain.
each sensory input has a seperate sensory store -
echoic- sound
iconic-vision
haptic-touch

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31
Q

what is the capacity like in the sensory register?

A

each sensory memory store has a large capacity

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32
Q

what is the duration like in the sensory register?

A

different sensory memory stores appear to have different durations however almost all decay quickly because the brain needs to respond to the live stimulation constantly.

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33
Q

what is the working memory model?

A

the working memory is developed by Baddeley and hitch to explain the STM in more detail

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34
Q

how does the working memory model work?

A

1) sense information is receieved at the central executive before being passed on to sub systems .
2) subsystems recieve info - the phonological loop processes auditory coded info. visuo-spatial sketchpad processes visual and spatial coded info. Episodic buffer is a temporary and general store for info - both acoustic and visual info.

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35
Q

what is the role of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

A

it is used for the planning of spatial tasks and the temporary storage of visual and spatial info.
it is subdivided;
-visual cache- stores info about visual items
-inner scribe- deals with spatial relationships and the arrangements of objects in a visual field.

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36
Q

what is the phonological loop?

A

the phonological loop deals with aiditor information and it preserves the order in which the info arrives
it is subdivided;
-phonological store-holds the words you hear
-articulatory process-allows for maintenance rehearsal of acoustic info

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37
Q

what is the chief executive?

A

the function of the chief executive is to direct the brains resources to one of the three slave systems - there is very limited storage capacity.

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38
Q

what is the episodic buffer?

A

the episodic buffer is a general store for both acoustic and visual information. its temporary. it maintains a sense of time sequencing and sends info to the LTM

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39
Q

how is performance effected when using different areas in the working memory model?

A

two tasks that require the use of different stores can be performed simultaneously but performing tasks that involve the same store will impair performance.

40
Q

one strength of the working memory model - dual task studies support it

A

dual task studies support the WMM- Baddeley showed participants have more difficulty doing 2 visual task rather than a visual and spatial at the same time. shows difficulty increases when two tasks require the same slave system , there is competition.. Therefore must be separate slave systems.

41
Q

one strength of the working memory model- word length effect supports it

A

studies into word length by Baddeley support the phonological loop , people had more trouble remembering a list of long words than short words. this shows limited space for rehearsal . This effect disappears if person is given a repetitive task to tie up their articulatory process which shows we use this store

42
Q

one strength of the working memory model- case studies support it

A

case study of KF supports it , he suffered brain damage , poor short term memory for verbal info but he could process visual info normally. this suggests just his phonological loop was damaged . supports visual and accoustic stores being seperate

counter however its a case study - generalisability? and brain damage causes trauma to brain may not be reliable to draw conclusions from

43
Q

one limitation of the working memory model- lack of clarity over central executive

A

cognitive scientists say there is lack of clarity over the CE and it doesn’t really explain anything, Baddeley said himself “it is the most important and least understood component of working memory”. some psychologists believe it may be made up of several components.
this means working memory model hasn’t been explained fully

44
Q

what are the two explanations for forgetting

A

interference

retrieval failure

45
Q

define retrieval failure

A

forgetting that occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access memory. The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided.

46
Q

what is a cue?

A

a cue is a trigger of information that allows us to access a memory , cues can be external (e.g. environmental context ) or internal (mood or state)

47
Q

what is Tulving’s encoding specificity principle?

A

if a cue is to help us recall information it has to be present at encoding and at retrieval

if cues available at encoding are different or absent at retrieval there will be some forgetting

48
Q

what is context dependent forgetting?

A

forgetting when learning and recalling are in different places

49
Q

what is state dependent forgetting?

A

forgetting when learning and recalling are in different moods or physical states

50
Q

outline the procedure of Godden and Baddeley’s research into context dependent forgetting - retrieval failure

A

Divers learned word lists either on land or under water and were then asked to recall them either on land or on water.

51
Q

outline the results of Godden and Baddeley’s research into context dependent forgetting - retrieval failure

A

when the environmental context of learning and recall did not not match accurate recall was 40% lower than when they did match

52
Q

outline the results of Godden and Baddeley’s research into context dependent forgetting - retrieval failure

A

this demonstrates context dependent forgetting because information was not accessible and recall was lower when they did not match.

53
Q

what is one limitation of baddeleys research into context dependent forgetting-retrieval failiure

how applicable is it to real life situations

A

Baddeley’s research might not show how forgetting occurs in real life - contexts are rarely as different as on land and under sea.

54
Q

what is one strength of Baddeley’s research into context dependent forgetting-retrieval failure

real world application

A

it has real world application , research into context dependent forgetting could be used to help those with memory problems.

55
Q

outline the procedure of Carter and Cassaday study into state dependent forgetting- retrieval failure

A

participants are given anti- histamine drugs to make them drowsy creating an internal physiological state that is different to a normal state. Participants learned lists either drowsy or alert and were asked to recall them either drowsy or alert.

56
Q

outline the results of Carter and Cassaday study into state dependent forgetting- retrieval failure

A

in conditions where there was a mismatch between internal state of learning and recall , performance on the memory test was worse.

57
Q

outline one limitation of research into retrieval failure

A

it is impossible to actually test whether a cue was encoded by a participant during learning.

58
Q

define interference as an explanation for forgetting

A

interference is when forgetting occurs because one memory blocks another causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten.

59
Q

what are the two types of interference?

A

proactive interference and retroactive interference

60
Q

define proactive interference

A

forgetting that occurs when older memories that are already stored disrupt the recall of newer memories.

pro-working forwards

61
Q

define retroactive interference

A

forgetting that occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories that are already stored

retro-working backwards

62
Q

when is the degree of forgetting greater?

A

the degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar

63
Q

outline the procedure , results and conclusion of McDonald and McGeoch’s study into interference.

A

procedure-participants were asked to recall a word list until 100% accuracy.gave participants a second list of words (synonyms , autonyms , unrelated , nonsense, three digit numbers or rest.) participants were then asked to recall the original list.

results-synonyms produced the worst recall
digits produced the best recall

conclusion-interference is stronger when memories are similar, synonyms blocked access or the new material , synonyms blocked access or the new material became confused with the old material.

64
Q

one limitation of McDonald and McGeoch’s study into interference- lab based

A

the study is laboratory based, stimulus material used of word lists is different to every day life , artificial tasks ecological validity.

65
Q

one limitation of research into interference- short times in lab

A

the way forgetting is tested in the lab may mean periods of time for forgetting were as short as 20 mins - a much shorter experience than in real life.

66
Q

one strength of research into interference - supporting research from outside the lab

A

Baddeley and hitch asked rugby players to recall the names of teams they had played week by week in the season. accurate recall depended on the number of games in-between them rather than how long ago the match took place. more games - poorer recall. can be applied to every day situations

67
Q

what are the three things that can have an effect on the accuracy of Eye witness Testimony EWT?

A

post event discussion
leading questions
anxiety

68
Q

define misleading information

A

misleading information is given to the eyewitness usually after the event (often called post event information) It can take many forms such as leading questions and post event discussion between co witnesses/or other people

69
Q

define leading questions

A

a question that because of the way it is phrased it suggests a certain answer.

70
Q

outline the procedure of Loftus and Palmers study into leading questions effect on eyewitness testimony

A

45 participants watched films of car accident and then answered questions including a critical question - “how fast were the cars going when they hit each other”- the verb was changed each time

e.g. hit , smashed , contacted

71
Q

outline the results of Loftus and Palmers study into leading questions effect on eyewitness testimony

A

participants who heard the word “smashed” reported the highest speed estimate (40.5mph) and participants who heard the word contacted estimated (31.8mph)

72
Q

outline the conclusion of Loftus and Palmers study into leading questions effect on eyewitness testimony

A

the study demonstrates the response bias explanation leading questions influenced the participants answer

73
Q

outline the procedure and results of Loftus and Palmers second study into leading questions effect on eyewitness testimony on later memory

A

a week after the original study participants were asked to return they were asked if they saw broken glass (there was none) participants who heard the verb smashed were more likely to report seeing broken glass- shows the substitution effect.

74
Q

define post event discussion

A

post event discussion occurs when there is more than one witness to an event to an event . witnesses may discuss what they have seen with co witnesses or other people, this might affect the accuracy of each witnesses recall due to memory contamination or memory conformity.

75
Q

outline procedure and results of Fiona Gabberts study into post event discussion as having an effect on EWT

A

Gabbert paired participants to watch the video of a same crime but from different angles. after discussion 71% of participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the crime that were not in their video. the control group had 0%.

Gabbert concluded people often go along with each other to gain social approval or because they believe they are right or wrong - this is called memory conformity

76
Q

one strength of research into EWT (post event discussion and leading questions) - real world application

A

there is useful real world application- research has been used to inform and warn criminal justice system about problems with EWT

77
Q

one limitation of research into EWT (post event discussion and leading questions) -lacks consequences

A

Loftus and palmers research lacks the consequences that are involved in giving real life EWT. participants in these studies are not emotionally aroused in the same way they would be in real life- artificial .This therefore gives the study low ecological validity

78
Q

one limitation of research into EWT (post event discussion and leading questions)- demand characteristics

A

demand characteristics may have affected the results of Loftus and Palmers study - participants are more likely to answer yes than no in research.

79
Q

what would Johnson and Scott argue about the effect of anxiety on recall?

A

they would argue it has a negative effect on recall. in their study they found that participants who saw the man in a low anxiety condition had a 44% recall rate when identifying him , people in a high anxiety had 33% recall rate at identifying the man

the weapon focus comes into play - tunnel theory of memory

80
Q

what would Yuille and Cutshall argue about the effect of anxiety on recall

A

Yuille and Cutshall would argue anxiety has a positive effect on recall. They questioned 13 witnesses 4/5 months after a real shooting in Vancouver, participants new account were compared to their original police interview

participants who had highest level of stress had more accurate recall (88%) compared to (75%)

81
Q

one strength of research into anxiety on EWT- real world application

A

real world application and understanding the effect of anxiety on EWT could help determine the credibility of a witness

82
Q

one limitation of research into anxiety on EWT -field studies

A

field studies lack control - Yuille and Cutshall’s study- they don’t know how much the participants had viewed in the media which could of effected their responses

83
Q

one limitation of research into anxiety on EWT - ethical issues

A

there is ethical issues in both creating anxiety situations - Johnson and Scott and interviewing participant about real life anxious situations- Yuille and Cutshall- this could to distress for participants

84
Q

one limitation of research into anxiety on EWT - surprise or anxiety

A

in Johnson and Scott’s study the weapon may have caused surprise rather than anxiety, Pickel (1998) found low recall with a raw chicken in a hairdressing salon - this is not a high anxiety situation

85
Q

how can the two contradicting findings of effect of anxiety on recall be explained - Yerkes Dodson law?

A

Yerkes Dodson law states that lower levels of anxiety produce lower levels of recall accuracy , memory becomes more accurate as anxiety increases. However if a witness goes past the optimal level of anxiety and experiences more personal distress recall suffers a drastic decline.

86
Q

what is the cognitive interview?

A

the cognitive interview is a method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories. It uses four main technique , all based on well established psychological knowledge.

87
Q

what are the four main stages/components of the cognitive interview to improve EWT?

A

1- report everything
2-reinstate the context
3-reverse the order
4- change the perspective

88
Q

what is report everything in the cognitive interview and how does it help improve EWT?

A

report everything is when witnesses are encouraged to include every single detail of the event even if they deem it as irrelevant .
The seemingly trivial details may be important and they may trigger other important memories by providing a cue.

89
Q

what is reinstate the context in the cognitive interview and how does it help improve EWT?

A

reinstate the context is when the witness should return to the original crime scene in their mind and imagine the environment. this aims to overcome the effects of context dependent forgetting (retrieval failure).

90
Q

what reverse the order in the cognitive interview and how does it help improve EWT?

A

reverse the order event should be recalled in a different chronological order to the original sequence . this is done to prevent people from reporting their expectations of how the event might of happened rather than how it actually happened. its also harder for people to lie when reversing the order

91
Q

what does change perspective in the cognitive interview and how does it help improve EWT?

A

change perspective is when witnesses should recall the incident from another persons perspective, this is done to disrupt the effect of expectations and schema on recall.

92
Q

what is the enhanced cognitive interview?

A

fisher et al developed some additional elements of the cognitive interview that focus on social dynamics of the interaction. e.g. interviewer needs to know when to establish eye contact. it also includes open questions, reducing witness anxiety , minimising distractions and getting witness to speak slowly.

93
Q

one strength of the cognitive interview as a way of improving EWT-some elements are valuable

A

some components are more valuable than others - Milne and Bull found combination of context reinstatement and and recall everything produced better recall than any of the other conditions. - shows that it is effective to use even 2 techniques of the CI even if all is not used.

94
Q

one strength of the cognitive interview as a way of improving EWT- supporting evidence and its useful in real life

A

supporting evidence for the ECI , Konken et al combined over 50 studies and found that ECI consistently provided more correct info than a standard police interview- shows there are practical benefits. counter argument-however it also creates a 61% increase in false positives - inaccurate info

95
Q

one limitation of the cognitive interview as a way of improving EWT - time consuming

A

CI is time consuming meaning police may prefer to use standard police may prefer to use standard police interviews . CI also requires special training , not everyone will get it , some people may be using the improper CI techniques .

96
Q

one limitation of the cognitive interview as a way of improving EWT - variations used

A

difficult to establish the effectiveness of the CI because different variations are used e.g. police developing their own methods. it makes it difficult to compare the ways it used and evaluate how effective.

AQA A-Level Psychology (8 decks)

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