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Psychology 1A > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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0
Q

What does memory allow us to do?

A

Add richness and context to our lives

Allows us to learn from experience which helps us adapt to changing environments

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1
Q

What is memory?

A

Refers to the process that allows us to record, store and later retrieve experiences and information

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2
Q

Describe the case of HM

A

At the age of 27 years, HM had his hippocampus & surrounding brain tissue removed to reduce his epileptic seizures

Successful operation but it did leave him with amnesia

He was able to discuss memories from his childhood, teens & early twenties

Lost the ability to form new memories that he could consciously recall - basically had to be reminded of who he was all the time

Did learn things - eg Tower of Hanoi task
Each time he said he didn’t know what it was but gradually over time, his skills for the task improved despite claiming he had never seen it again

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3
Q

Describe the case of Rajan

Thompson et al 1993 and Harris 2002

A

At the age of 5, he recited all the number plates of the cars of the 40-50 guests at one his parents parties

Whilst in college he recalled the first 31,811 digits of pi

  • being asked how to describe how he learned numbers was like asking someone how you ride a bike - difficult to describe both processes (Thompson et al)
  • his memory is ordinary just like everyone else’s - he uses a shopping list & says that he has to leave his glasses, wallet & keys together near the door otherwise he will forget them (Harris)
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4
Q

What is encoding?

A

Refers to getting information into memory by translating it into a form that the system can use ie a code

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5
Q

What is storage?

A

Involves retaining information over time

Once information is in the system, information must be filed and saved

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6
Q

What is retrieval?

A

Refers to processes that access stored information

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7
Q

What are the 3 main memory stores?

A

Sensory

Working (short-term) memory

Long-term memory

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8
Q

Who developed the 3 stage model of memory?

A

Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)

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9
Q

What is short term memory?

A

A memory store that temporarily holds a limited amount of information

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10
Q

What are memory codes?

A

Mental representations of some type of information or stimulus and can take different forms

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11
Q

Why are memory codes needed?

A

So that sensory input is changed into a form that the system can cope with in order for it to be coded

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12
Q

Name the 4 different types of memory codes

A

Visual codes - information represented as pictures

Acoustic codes - information represented as sound

Semantic codes - focuses on the meaning of the stimulus

Motor codes - patterns of movement eg playing a sport or musical instrument

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13
Q

Principle encoding system in STM

A

Acoustic coding

Can store for a short time in visual or semantic

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14
Q

Principle encoding system in LTM

A

Semantic coding

Can also be coded visually & acoustically

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15
Q

How much information can STM hold?

A

Only a limited amount

Eg list of words to remember - usually about 7

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16
Q

What is chunking?

A

A process which aids recall

When individual items are combined into larger units of meaning

Eg remember a telephone number

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17
Q

According to the 3 stage model, what does STM act as?

A

A temporary holding station for information along the route from sensory to LTM

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18
Q

What do cognitive scientists now believe STM acts as?

A

Working memory

A limited capacity system that temporarily stores and processes information (Baddeley 2002)

A mental work space that stores information, activity manipulates it and supports other cognitive functions such as problem solving and planning

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19
Q

What are the 4 components of Working Memory?

A

Phonological loop

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Episodic buffer

Central executive

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20
Q

What does the phonological loop do in working memory?

A

Stores mental representations of sound

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21
Q

What does the Visuospatial Sketchpad do in working memory?

A

Briefly stories visual and spatial information

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22
Q

What does the epidemic buffer do in working memory?

A

Provides a temporary storage space where information from long-term memory and from the other 2 sub-systems can be integrated, manipulated and made available for conscious awareness.

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23
Q

What does the central executive do in working memory?

A

Directs the overall action

Basically controls everything:

  • it plans and controls the sequence of actions that need to be performed
  • controls the sequence of actions that need to be performed
  • divides and allocates attention to the other subsystems
  • integrates information within the episodic buffer
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24
Q

What is LTM?

A

A library of more durable and stored memories

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25
Q

What does a serial position effect mean?

A

The ability to recall an item is influenced by the items position in a series, mainly whether it was presented first or last

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26
Q

What is the primary effect?

A

Information given to you at the beginning is rehearsed and stored into your LTM

Due to the transfer of early information into the LTM

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27
Q

What is the recency effect?

A

Information presented to you at the end is still fresh in your STM so you remember it

Due to the continued presence of information in the LTM

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28
Q

What is effort full processing?

A

When encoding is initiated intentionally and requires conscious attention

Eg when you rehearse information, make lists or take notes

29
Q

What is automatic processing?

A

Encoding that occurs without intention and requires minimal attention

30
Q

Levels of Processing - what does this model say about processing information?

A

The more deeply we process information, the better we will be at remembering it (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)

31
Q

State the 3 levels of processing

A

Shallow processing

Intermediate processing

Deep processing

32
Q

What is types of questions / encoding are associated with Shallow processing?

A

Structural - relates to the physical structure of the information

Eg the physical structure of the word, how many letters

33
Q

What types of questions / encoding are associated with Intermediate processing?

A

Phonetic - related to the sound properties of the information

Eg does this word rhyme with that word?

34
Q

What types of questions / encoding are associated with Deep processing?

A

Semantic - related meaning / properties of the information

Eg does this word fit into this sentence?

35
Q

Which level should you best remember information from?

A

Deep / Semantic

This is because the encoding involves the deepest form of processing since it requires us to focus on the meaning of the information we are trying to remember

36
Q

Why is rehearsal important for Levels of Processing?

A

Because it is involved in the depth of processing essentially:

The more thought / organisation / relating done to the information, the deeper the processing and better the memory

37
Q

What is the method of loci?

A

A memory aid that associates information with mental images of physical locations

38
Q

What are mnemonics?

A

Memory devices that reorganise information into more meaningful units and provide extra cues to help retrieve information from long-term memory

39
Q

What is a schema?

A

A mental framework (organised pattern of thought) about some aspect of the world

Helps us with future events - give us an idea of what to expect / what could occur

40
Q

What are Associative Networks?

A

A massive network of associated ideas and concepts

41
Q

What is Declarative Memory?

A

Involves factual knowledge

42
Q

What are the 2 subcategories of Declarative Memory?

A

Episodic Memory

Semantic Memory

43
Q

What is Episodic Memory?

A

Our store of knowledge concerning personal experiences

  • when, where & what happened in our lives
  • recollections of childhood friends, favourite film, what you ate for breakfast this morning etc
44
Q

What is Semantic Memory?

A

Represents general factual knowledge about the world & language, including memory for worlds and concepts

45
Q

Why are Episodic & Semantic Memories declarative?

A

Because to demonstrate our knowledge, we have to declare it to tell other people what we know

46
Q

What is Procedural / Non-declarative memory?

A

Memories of how to do things

Reflected in skills & actions

Consists of skills that are expressed by doing things in particular situations eg typing or riding a bike

47
Q

What is Explicit Memory?

A

Deliberately trying to remember something

When you consciously recognise or recall something

Recognise - eg recognising someone in a police line up
Recall - involves spontaneous memory retrieval in that you must retrieve the target stimuli / information on your own

48
Q

What in Implicit Memory?

A

When memory influences our behaviour without conscious awareness

Unintentional recollection of prior experience

Automatic, no conscious effort required

49
Q

What is a retrieval cue?

A

A stimulus (internal or external) that activities information stored in the long-term memory

50
Q

What is priming?

A

Refers to activating the particular representations or associations in memory just before carrying out an action or task

Activating one memory by another memory

Eg if you see the word yellow, you will be slightly faster to recognise the word banana

51
Q

What is Prospective Memory?

A

Remembering to do something in the future

52
Q

What is Retrospective Memory?

A

Remembering events in the past / events previously learned

53
Q

What type of tasks are easier to remember & what do you need to attach to them?

A

Habitual tasks = everyday tasks

Need to attach a cue to a task - can be event or time based

54
Q

What is the concept of state-dependant memory?

A

It proposes that our ability to retrieve information is greater when our internal state at the time of retrieval matches the original state we were in whilst learning

Eg if we did exams in the same lecture theatre where we taught the information, we would do better in exams

55
Q

Example of state-dependent memory

A

Christianson and Nilsson, 1989

A young Swedish women was raped whilst going out for a jog and it was found that she could consciously remember her assault for the first time when she went jogging - similar activity & similar environment helped to stimulate her memory?

56
Q

What is amnesia?

A

Refers to memory loss due to special conditions such as brain injury, illness or psychological trauma

57
Q

What is Retrograde Amnesia?

A

Represents memory loss that took place sometime in life before the onset of amnesia

Inability to remember events before the injury / disease

58
Q

What is Anterograde Amnesia?

A

Refers to the memory loss of events that occur after the initial onset of amnesia

Inability to remember everyday events and to acquire new information

59
Q

What is Dementia?

A

Refers to impaired memory and other cognitive deficits that accompany brain degeneration which interfere with normal functioning

60
Q

Give two examples of famous people with amnesia

A

HM - brain damaged patient with both forms of amnesia due to brain surgery which was done to correct his epileptic seizures

Clive Wearing - suffers from severe anterograde amnesia, he cannot form new memories

61
Q

What is Alzheimer’s Disease?

A

A progressive brain disorder that is the most common cause of dementia among adults over 65

62
Q

Describe the symptoms of Alzheimer’s Disease

A
  • forgetfulness
  • poor judgement
  • confusion
  • disorientation
  • progressive loss of memory, especially semantic
  • recall & recognition affected
  • memory for recent events & new information is impaired especially
63
Q

Describe the brain changes associated with Alzheimer’s

A

Shrinkage of the cerebral cortex

Spreads across the temporal lobes to the frontal and other cortical regions

64
Q

What is Korsakoff Syndrome?

A

A brain disorder heavily associated with heavy alcohol consumption over a long period of time

Can be accompanied by anterograde and retrograde amnesia

Extensive damage to the thalamus and hypothalamus

65
Q

What does our sensory memory depend on?

A

Our visual, auditory & other sensory systems to:

  • detect stimulus information
  • transform it into neural codes
  • send it to the brain where sensory areas of the cerebral cortex initially process it
66
Q

What are the frontal lobes and especially the prefrontal cortex important functions in?

A

Working memory

67
Q

What does frontal lobe damage damage often result in?

A

Impairment in central-executive functions of working memory

68
Q

What is the hippocampus involved with in regards to memory?

A

Consolidation of LTM (look at HM example)

Basically it helps convert short-term memory into permenant ones

69
Q

What is the amygdala involved with?

A

Encodes emotionally arousing aspects of stimuli

Plays an important role in help us form long term memories for events that stir up our emotions

70
Q

What is the cerebellum involved with?

A

Plays an important role in forming procedural memories

Helps explain why HM showed improved performance on certain tasks even though he could not remember that he had already performed these tasks before - his cerebellum was not damaged during his operation

71
Q

What happens if the Thalamus is damaged?

A

Leads to amnesia

Psychology 1A (6 decks)

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