Memory Flashcards
What does memory allow us to do?
Add richness and context to our lives
Allows us to learn from experience which helps us adapt to changing environments
What is memory?
Refers to the process that allows us to record, store and later retrieve experiences and information
Describe the case of HM
At the age of 27 years, HM had his hippocampus & surrounding brain tissue removed to reduce his epileptic seizures
Successful operation but it did leave him with amnesia
He was able to discuss memories from his childhood, teens & early twenties
Lost the ability to form new memories that he could consciously recall - basically had to be reminded of who he was all the time
Did learn things - eg Tower of Hanoi task
Each time he said he didn’t know what it was but gradually over time, his skills for the task improved despite claiming he had never seen it again
Describe the case of Rajan
Thompson et al 1993 and Harris 2002
At the age of 5, he recited all the number plates of the cars of the 40-50 guests at one his parents parties
Whilst in college he recalled the first 31,811 digits of pi
- being asked how to describe how he learned numbers was like asking someone how you ride a bike - difficult to describe both processes (Thompson et al)
- his memory is ordinary just like everyone else’s - he uses a shopping list & says that he has to leave his glasses, wallet & keys together near the door otherwise he will forget them (Harris)
What is encoding?
Refers to getting information into memory by translating it into a form that the system can use ie a code
What is storage?
Involves retaining information over time
Once information is in the system, information must be filed and saved
What is retrieval?
Refers to processes that access stored information
What are the 3 main memory stores?
Sensory
Working (short-term) memory
Long-term memory
Who developed the 3 stage model of memory?
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)
What is short term memory?
A memory store that temporarily holds a limited amount of information
What are memory codes?
Mental representations of some type of information or stimulus and can take different forms
Why are memory codes needed?
So that sensory input is changed into a form that the system can cope with in order for it to be coded
Name the 4 different types of memory codes
Visual codes - information represented as pictures
Acoustic codes - information represented as sound
Semantic codes - focuses on the meaning of the stimulus
Motor codes - patterns of movement eg playing a sport or musical instrument
Principle encoding system in STM
Acoustic coding
Can store for a short time in visual or semantic
Principle encoding system in LTM
Semantic coding
Can also be coded visually & acoustically
How much information can STM hold?
Only a limited amount
Eg list of words to remember - usually about 7
What is chunking?
A process which aids recall
When individual items are combined into larger units of meaning
Eg remember a telephone number
According to the 3 stage model, what does STM act as?
A temporary holding station for information along the route from sensory to LTM
What do cognitive scientists now believe STM acts as?
Working memory
A limited capacity system that temporarily stores and processes information (Baddeley 2002)
A mental work space that stores information, activity manipulates it and supports other cognitive functions such as problem solving and planning
What are the 4 components of Working Memory?
Phonological loop
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Episodic buffer
Central executive
What does the phonological loop do in working memory?
Stores mental representations of sound
What does the Visuospatial Sketchpad do in working memory?
Briefly stories visual and spatial information
What does the epidemic buffer do in working memory?
Provides a temporary storage space where information from long-term memory and from the other 2 sub-systems can be integrated, manipulated and made available for conscious awareness.
What does the central executive do in working memory?
Directs the overall action
Basically controls everything:
- it plans and controls the sequence of actions that need to be performed
- controls the sequence of actions that need to be performed
- divides and allocates attention to the other subsystems
- integrates information within the episodic buffer
What is LTM?
A library of more durable and stored memories
What does a serial position effect mean?
The ability to recall an item is influenced by the items position in a series, mainly whether it was presented first or last
What is the primary effect?
Information given to you at the beginning is rehearsed and stored into your LTM
Due to the transfer of early information into the LTM
What is the recency effect?
Information presented to you at the end is still fresh in your STM so you remember it
Due to the continued presence of information in the LTM
What is effort full processing?
When encoding is initiated intentionally and requires conscious attention
Eg when you rehearse information, make lists or take notes
What is automatic processing?
Encoding that occurs without intention and requires minimal attention
Levels of Processing - what does this model say about processing information?
The more deeply we process information, the better we will be at remembering it (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)
State the 3 levels of processing
Shallow processing
Intermediate processing
Deep processing
What is types of questions / encoding are associated with Shallow processing?
Structural - relates to the physical structure of the information
Eg the physical structure of the word, how many letters
What types of questions / encoding are associated with Intermediate processing?
Phonetic - related to the sound properties of the information
Eg does this word rhyme with that word?
What types of questions / encoding are associated with Deep processing?
Semantic - related meaning / properties of the information
Eg does this word fit into this sentence?
Which level should you best remember information from?
Deep / Semantic
This is because the encoding involves the deepest form of processing since it requires us to focus on the meaning of the information we are trying to remember
Why is rehearsal important for Levels of Processing?
Because it is involved in the depth of processing essentially:
The more thought / organisation / relating done to the information, the deeper the processing and better the memory
What is the method of loci?
A memory aid that associates information with mental images of physical locations
What are mnemonics?
Memory devices that reorganise information into more meaningful units and provide extra cues to help retrieve information from long-term memory
What is a schema?
A mental framework (organised pattern of thought) about some aspect of the world
Helps us with future events - give us an idea of what to expect / what could occur
What are Associative Networks?
A massive network of associated ideas and concepts
What is Declarative Memory?
Involves factual knowledge
What are the 2 subcategories of Declarative Memory?
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory
What is Episodic Memory?
Our store of knowledge concerning personal experiences
- when, where & what happened in our lives
- recollections of childhood friends, favourite film, what you ate for breakfast this morning etc
What is Semantic Memory?
Represents general factual knowledge about the world & language, including memory for worlds and concepts
Why are Episodic & Semantic Memories declarative?
Because to demonstrate our knowledge, we have to declare it to tell other people what we know
What is Procedural / Non-declarative memory?
Memories of how to do things
Reflected in skills & actions
Consists of skills that are expressed by doing things in particular situations eg typing or riding a bike
What is Explicit Memory?
Deliberately trying to remember something
When you consciously recognise or recall something
Recognise - eg recognising someone in a police line up
Recall - involves spontaneous memory retrieval in that you must retrieve the target stimuli / information on your own
What in Implicit Memory?
When memory influences our behaviour without conscious awareness
Unintentional recollection of prior experience
Automatic, no conscious effort required
What is a retrieval cue?
A stimulus (internal or external) that activities information stored in the long-term memory
What is priming?
Refers to activating the particular representations or associations in memory just before carrying out an action or task
Activating one memory by another memory
Eg if you see the word yellow, you will be slightly faster to recognise the word banana
What is Prospective Memory?
Remembering to do something in the future
What is Retrospective Memory?
Remembering events in the past / events previously learned
What type of tasks are easier to remember & what do you need to attach to them?
Habitual tasks = everyday tasks
Need to attach a cue to a task - can be event or time based
What is the concept of state-dependant memory?
It proposes that our ability to retrieve information is greater when our internal state at the time of retrieval matches the original state we were in whilst learning
Eg if we did exams in the same lecture theatre where we taught the information, we would do better in exams
Example of state-dependent memory
Christianson and Nilsson, 1989
A young Swedish women was raped whilst going out for a jog and it was found that she could consciously remember her assault for the first time when she went jogging - similar activity & similar environment helped to stimulate her memory?
What is amnesia?
Refers to memory loss due to special conditions such as brain injury, illness or psychological trauma
What is Retrograde Amnesia?
Represents memory loss that took place sometime in life before the onset of amnesia
Inability to remember events before the injury / disease
What is Anterograde Amnesia?
Refers to the memory loss of events that occur after the initial onset of amnesia
Inability to remember everyday events and to acquire new information
What is Dementia?
Refers to impaired memory and other cognitive deficits that accompany brain degeneration which interfere with normal functioning
Give two examples of famous people with amnesia
HM - brain damaged patient with both forms of amnesia due to brain surgery which was done to correct his epileptic seizures
Clive Wearing - suffers from severe anterograde amnesia, he cannot form new memories
What is Alzheimer’s Disease?
A progressive brain disorder that is the most common cause of dementia among adults over 65
Describe the symptoms of Alzheimer’s Disease
- forgetfulness
- poor judgement
- confusion
- disorientation
- progressive loss of memory, especially semantic
- recall & recognition affected
- memory for recent events & new information is impaired especially
Describe the brain changes associated with Alzheimer’s
Shrinkage of the cerebral cortex
Spreads across the temporal lobes to the frontal and other cortical regions
What is Korsakoff Syndrome?
A brain disorder heavily associated with heavy alcohol consumption over a long period of time
Can be accompanied by anterograde and retrograde amnesia
Extensive damage to the thalamus and hypothalamus
What does our sensory memory depend on?
Our visual, auditory & other sensory systems to:
- detect stimulus information
- transform it into neural codes
- send it to the brain where sensory areas of the cerebral cortex initially process it
What are the frontal lobes and especially the prefrontal cortex important functions in?
Working memory
What does frontal lobe damage damage often result in?
Impairment in central-executive functions of working memory
What is the hippocampus involved with in regards to memory?
Consolidation of LTM (look at HM example)
Basically it helps convert short-term memory into permenant ones
What is the amygdala involved with?
Encodes emotionally arousing aspects of stimuli
Plays an important role in help us form long term memories for events that stir up our emotions
What is the cerebellum involved with?
Plays an important role in forming procedural memories
Helps explain why HM showed improved performance on certain tasks even though he could not remember that he had already performed these tasks before - his cerebellum was not damaged during his operation
What happens if the Thalamus is damaged?
Leads to amnesia
