Memory Flashcards

Question

Evaluation of LTM and the types

Answer 1

PROS: - Evidence for the distinction between episodic/semantic and procedural memory has come from research on patients with amnesia. Typically patients with amnesia are unable to store new episodic or semantic memories but their procedural memory appears to be largely unaffected. - Scientific evidence captured from brain scans supports the view that there are different types of LTM. For example, when asking participants to recall different types of information, different areas of the brain are shown to be active on an fMRI. Episodic - hippocampus, semantic - temporal lobe, procedural - cerebellum - Case studies of brain damaged patients offer support for the different types of LTM. For example, Clive Wearing is a man who suffered from a viral infection which damaged his hippocampus. He has no episodic memory and cannot form new semantic memories. However, his procedural memory is intact (e.g. he can still play the piano). CONS: - Research into the different types of LTM have typically been conducted on individual patients (e.g. Clive Wearing and HM). Case studies are highly detailed and provide a lot of information but are isolated cases of one individual. It would be inappropriate to assume that everyone’s’ LTM is formed in the same way. The findings cannot be generalised to the wider population.

Answer 2

a person’s loss of ability to recall or recognise something that they have previously learned

Answer 3

Interference theory claims that forgetting occurs when two lots of information become confused in memory. Interference is more likely to occur when the two lots of information are similar to one another. Inference is less likely to occur when there is a gap between the instances of learning. Retroactive interference is when new learning affects the recall of old information. Proactive interference is when old learning affects the recall of new information.

Answer 4

PROS: - RESEARCH SUPPORTING PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE. Keppel and Underwood 1962 gave pps 3 letter consonant trigrams at diff intervals, asked pps to count back from 3 b4 recall. Pps remembered first trigrams, researchers concluded memory for earlier trigrams interfered with later ones - RESEARCH EVIDENCE SUPPORTING RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE. McGeoch and Mcodonald 1931 gave pps lists of words they had to learn until recalled with 100% accuracy. They then learnt a new lists that was either synonyms or antonyms. Pps asked to remember original list. Pps given list of synonyms had worst recall, showing similar meaning words cause retroactive interference - This theory has practical applications. Students should be made aware of this theory so that they do not attempt to revise similar content/subjects at the same time, as this will make interference more likely to occur. CONS - When interference occurs the loss of information may only be temporary, therefore interference is not a true explanation for forgetting because the information is not actually over-written and is still in Long-Term Memory - Some psychologists argue that retrieval failure is a much better explanation of forgetting in everyday life than interference. This theory states that we forget when there are not enough retrieval cues to help us remember. Godden and Baddeley (1975) got divers to learn and recall word lists on either dry land or underwater. Results showed that words learnt and recalled in the same context were better remembered as there were retrieval cues in the environment to help them remember the words.

Answer 5

Retrieval failure argues that forgetting occurs in the absence of appropriate retrieval cues. When information is initially placed in memory, data associated with this information is stored at the same time. If these retrieval cues are not available at the time of recall, it may make it appear as if you have forgotten the information when in fact you just cannot access it at that time. Some retrieval cues are linked to the material that needs to be remembered in a meaningful way, for example, the anagram ‘STM’ may lead people to recall all sorts of information about short-term memory. Other retrieval cues are coded at the same time of learning but not in a meaningful way.

Answer 6

Context: The environment in which material is learnt can act as a retrieval cues. This means that if you recall information in the same environment that you learned it (e.g. the same classroom) then your recall will be better. State: An individual’s physical state (e.g. mood) can affect their recall. Research studies suggest that recall is facilitated if people have a similar physical state at recall as when the information was coded. If you are not in the same physical state at recall as you were when you learned the information then you might fail to access the information.

Answer 7

PROS: - Abernethy (1940) demonstrated the importance of context-dependent cues. They tested participants’ recall using a mixture of familiar and unfamiliar instructors and teaching rooms. Participants tested by a familiar instructor, in a familiar room, performed the best because the instructor and room acted as retrieval cues. - Godden and Baddeley (1975) also demonstrated the importance of context- dependent cues. They asked divers to learn and recall word lists on either dry land or underwater. Results showed that words learnt and recalled in the same context were better remembered as there were retrieval cues to help them remember the words. -Darley et al. (1973) showed the importance of state-dependent cues. They found that participants who hid money in a large warehouse while under the influence of cannabis were more likely to recall the hiding place when in a similar drugged state. - Retrieval Failure has practical applications. Whenever possible students should learn/revise in the room, in which they will take their final exams. CONS: - Baddeley (1997) argues that the influence of retrieval cues is not actually very strong. In real life, we often recall something in a different context to where we learnt it. For instance, students do not often take their GCSE examinations in the classroom where they learned the information they need for that exam.

Answer 8

Leading questions are questions that are phrased in such a way as to encourage a witness to give a certain answer

Answer 9

The response-bias explanation argues that leading questions do not affect memory, merely the answer a person chooses to give. However, the substitution-bias explanation proposes that leading questions distort memories because they contain misleading information.

Answer 10

PROS: - Loftus and Palmer (1974) showed 45 American students a film of a car crash and then asked them to estimate the speed that the cars were travelling when they crashed. However different verbs were used in the question depending on the condition. The verbs were contacted, hit, bumped, collided, or smashed. Pps in contacted estimated 31mph but with smashed estimated 41 mph. A week l8er pps asked if the saw broken glass even tho there wasn’t, 32% of pps in smashed said yh compared to 12% in controlled condition showing leading qs have an impact on what ppl recall as it can change entire memory of life event - ^^^^ study was lab and highly controlled, no extraneous variables, increasing validity replicability and reliability CONS: - Low ecological validity (video of car crash is different to people who actually witness one as they have stronger emotional connection to event) and low population validity (45 American students who less experienced drivers and worse at estimating speed so can’t generalise to other populations. Experienced drivers wouldn’t be susceptible to leading qs)

Answer 11

Pros: - study has high population validity as there were two different populations and students + adults were used and there wasn’t a significant difference between what the young and old showed CONS: - This study lacks ecological validity. The participants knew they were taking part in an experiment and they therefore are more likely to have paid close attention to the details of the video clip. The results do not reflect real life where witnesses may be exposed to less information.

Answer 12

Loftus (1979) wanted to see whether anxiety affected a person’s ability to recognise the perpetrator of a crime. In the experimental condition Loftus arranged for participants to overhear a heated and hostile argument between two people. They also heard the sounds of furniture being overturned and broken glass. Then a man emerged carrying a letter opener covered in blood. In the control condition participants overheard a conversation between two people about laboratory equipment failure before a man with grease all over his hands emerged carrying a pen. Participants were then asked to identify the person they had just seen from 50 photos. FINDINGS Only 33% of the participants in the bloody letter opener condition recognised the photo of the person carrying the letter opener whereas 49% of the participants in the pen condition recognised the photo of the person carrying the pen. Loftus (1979) argued that this occurred because people in the former condition had focused on the bloody letter opener rather than the person carrying it, because the letter opener was a weapon that could pose a threat to them.

Answer 13

PROS: - This study is supported by other research studies. Loftus & Burns (1982) allocated participants into one of two conditions. One group watched a violent short film where a boy was shot in the head. The other group watched a non- violent short film of a crime. Participants were less accurate in recall when they saw the short film with a gun than those who watched the non-violent movie. CONS: - low ecological validity (anticipated something would happen, affects accuracy of judgements and validity of study) - violated numerous ethical guidelines, deceived about nature of experiments and not protected from psychological harm (they actually thought the guy killed someone which could’ve caused extreme distress) - Yuille and Cutshall (1986) investigated the effect of anxiety in a real life shooting, in which one person was killed and another person seriously wounded. 21 witnesses were originally interviewed by investigating police and 13 of these witnesses, aged between 15 and 32, agreed to take part in Yuille and Cutshall’s follow-up interview five months later. The witnesses were accurate in their eyewitness accounts five months later and little change was found in their testimony. Furthermore, the witnesses avoided leading questions and those who had been most distressed at the time of the shooting gave the most accurate account. In real life cases leading questions and anxiety do not affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony the same way they do in the laboratory. - There are individual differences in how anxiety affects memory. Some people actually have better recall when they are anxious. Christianson and Hubinette (1983) conducted a research study using 110 real life eyewitnesses who had witnessed one of 22 bank robberies. Some were onlookers and some were bank clerks who had been directly threatened by the robbers. It was found that victims were more accurate than onlookers in their description of the bank robbers.

Answer 14

Anxiety is a state of apprehension, uncertainty, and fear resulting from a threatening situation. When anxiety is high it can often impair both physical and psychological functioning. Several psychologists have suggested that the anxiety that occurs when witnessing a crime can prevent accurate and detailed recall of that crime. The presence of a weapon during a crime increases anxiety and therefore could impair witnesses’ memory of the crime. People focus more on weapon due to anxiety and threat it causes, leading to lesson information about criminal themselves being recalled (weapon focus effect)

Answer 15

Geiselman et al. (1985) developed the cognitive interview to improve police interview techniques and obtain more accurate information from eyewitnesses. It consists of four main stages. 1. Context Reinstatement = The witness tries to mentally recreate an image of the situation, including details of the environment, such as the weather conditions and their emotional state, including their feelings at the time of the incident. These may act as retrieval cues (context-dependent cues) to improve recall. 2. Report Everything = The interviewer encourages the witness to recall all details about the event, even though these details may seem to be unimportant. This may highlight details which have been overlooked and trigger other memories. 3. Recall From Changed Perspective = The witness tries to mentally recreate the situation from different points of view. This promotes a more holistic view of the event which might enhance recall. 4. Recall in Reverse Order = The witness is asked to recall the scene in a different chronological order. This should verify the accuracy of the witnesses' account. More things were added in 1987 by Fisher: - let witness relax and speak slowly to reduce anxiety - avoid distractions - use open-ended qs - offer comments to clarity

Answer 16

PROS: - Geiselman et al. (1985) showed participants a video of a simulated crime and tested recall using the cognitive interview, standard interview or hypnosis. The cognitive interview led to the most information being recalled by the eyewitnesses. - Fisher et al. (1990) trained real police officers in Miami to use the enhanced cognitive interview when interviewing eyewitnesses. They found that on average there was a 46% increase in the amount of information witnesses gave. 90% of the information that could be verified was accurate. CONS: - Koehnken et al. (1999) found that witnesses recalled more incorrect information when interviewed with the cognitive interview compared to the standard interview technique, perhaps because more detailed recall increases the chance of making a mistake - The cognitive interview is time consuming to implement and police officers often do not have the time, training and resources to use it. - Memon et al. (1993) reported that police officers believed that Recall From Changed Perspective stage of the cognitive interview misleads witnesses into speculating about the event they witnessed rather than reporting what they actually saw. For this reason the police were reluctant to use it

Answer 17

Eyewitness testimony (EWT) is the evidence supplied to a court by people who have seen a crime, based on their memory of the incident. This evidence can include an identification of the perpetrator or details of the crime (sequence of events, the time of day etc.). Juries are often heavily influenced by eyewitnesses.

Answer 18

- The memory of an event can be contaminated through discussing events with others due to misinformation (memory contamination). Also, a desire for social approval can lead co-witnesses to reach a consensus view of what happened (memory conformity). - Gabbert et al. (2003) put participants in pairs and got them to watch a different video of the same event so that they each got unique details. In one condition the pairs were encouraged to discuss the event with one another before individually recalling the event. In the other condition they did not discuss what they had seen with one another. 71% who discussed event mistakenly recalled details they didn’t see themselves but were told by their partner, demonstrating effects of memory contamination