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Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is coding?

A

The format in which information is stored in various memory stores

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2
Q

What is capacity?

A

The amount of information that can be held in a memory store at a given time

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3
Q

What is duration?

A

The length of time information can be held in a memory store

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4
Q

What is short term memory?

A

The limited capacity store. Coding is mainly acoustic, capacity is between 5 and 9 items, duration is between 18 and 30 seconds.

Capacity can be increased via chunking

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5
Q

What is long term memory?

A

The permanent memory store. Coding is mainly semantic, it has unlimited capacity and can store memories for up to a lifetime

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6
Q

Research into capacity, coding and duration of STM and LTM

A

Coding: Baddely (STM, LTM)

Capcity
STM - Jacobs and Miller

Duration:
STM - Peterson and Peterson
LTM - Bahrick

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7
Q

Baddeley aim

A

Research coding into stm and LTM

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8
Q

Baddeley procedure

A
  • 4 sets of word lists - acoustically similar and dissimilar, semantically similar and dissimilar.
  • participants recalled the order of word lists
  • done immediately to assess stm and after 20 minutes for ltm
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9
Q

Baddeley findings

A

Participants given acoustically and Semantically similar words had the worst recall
They confused the similar sounding and meaning words

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10
Q

Baddeley conclusions

A
  • lists that had poor recall showed that the words had become confused
  • for immediate recall, acoustically sounding words weren’t remembered well, showing stm is acoustically coded as they remembered the others fine.
  • for delayed recall, semantically sounding words were not remembered well, showing that LTM is semantically coded
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11
Q

Jacobs aim

A

Research capacity of stm

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12
Q

Jacobs procedure

A

Developed a technique to measure digit span - how many items an individual can remember, in sequence and repeat back in order

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13
Q

Jacobs findings and conclusions

A

Mean span for digits was 9.3 items and for letters it was 7.3

Concluded memory can hold 7-9 items

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14
Q

Miller aim

A

Research capacity of stm

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15
Q

Miller procedure

A

Observed things come in sevens e.g. days of the week.
Also used the digit span technique but ‘chunked’ items into groups e.g. sets of numbers

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16
Q

Miller findings

A

People could recall 5 words as well as they could recall 5 letters, via chunking

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17
Q

Miller conclusions

A

Used the term ‘the magical number seven’ to describe the capacity of stm

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18
Q

Peterson and Peterson aim

A

Research duration of stm

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19
Q

Peterson and Peterson procedure

A
  • 24 students took part in 8 trials and were given a consonant syllable/trigram and asked to count backwards to prevent rehearsal
  • on each trial, they were stopped after either 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 secs. This was the retention interval
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20
Q

Peterson and Peterson findings

A

STM lasts about 18 seconds after this, very few people correctly recall the consonant syllable

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21
Q

Peterson and Peterson conclusions

A

STM has a very short duration, unless it is rehearsed

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22
Q

Bahrick aim

A

Research duration of ltm

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23
Q

Bahrick procedure

A

Tested recall of people participants had gone to school with using photo recognition (50 yearbook photos) and free recall (recalled names)

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24
Q

Bahrick findings

A

90% accuracy for photo recognition for people who had graduated within 15 years ad 60% accuracy for free recall.
After 48 years photo recognition recall about 70% and 30% for free recall

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25
Q

Bahrick conclusions

A

LTM lasts a very long time

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26
Q

What are the features of the MSM

A

Sensory register - coding = iconic and echoic
capacity = high
Duration = less that 1/2 second

STM - coding = acoustic
Capacity = 5-9
Duration = 18-30 seconds

LTM - coding = semantic
Capacity =unlimited
Duration = unlimited

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27
Q

What is the multi-store model of memory?

A

A representation of how memory works in terms of three stores called sensory register, STM and LTM.
It describes how information is transferred from one store to another, how it is remembered and how it is forgotten

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28
Q

Sensory register

A

The memory store for each of the five senses, such as vision (iconic store) and hearing (echoic store).
Coding in the iconic sensory register is visual and in the echoic sensory register it is acoustic.
The capacity of the sensory register is huge and information lasts for a very short time - less than half a second

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29
Q

What does the msm describe

A

The flow between three permanent storage systems of memory

Developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin

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30
Q

What happens in the sensory register

A

Where information from the senses is stored, but only for a short duration before it is forgotten

It is modality-specific i.e. whichever sense is registered will match the way it is consequently held (a taste is held as a taste)

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31
Q

How can info from the sr move to the stm

A

If attended to, sensory information moves into the stm for temporary storage, which is primarily encoded acoustically (as a sound)

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32
Q

How do the stores work together to move info to the ltm

A

Rehearsing information via the rehearsal loop helps to retain the information in the stm, and consolidate it to the ltm, which is predominantly encoded semantically.
Information can be stored and retrieved for up to any duration, and equally has seemingly unlimited capacity

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33
Q

Primary recency effect

A
  • tendency to remember the first and last items in a series better than those in the middle
  • form of cognitive bias that is thought to be due to how information is processed and stored in memory
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34
Q

Murdock

A
  • primary recency effect
  • list of 10 to 40 words, one word at a time, one word per second
  • asked to recall as many words as possible in any order
  • words early in the list were put into ltm (primary effect) because they have had time to rehearse acoustically
  • words from the end were put into stm (recency effect)
  • words in the middle were forgotten
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35
Q

Glanzer and cunitz

A
  • primary recency effect
  • randomly assigned immediate or delayed recall
  • both groups presented with a list of 12 monosyllabic words, one at a Tim, one per second
  • immediate recall was asked to recall words immediately
  • delayed recall were asked to count backwards in threes for 30 seconds before recalling the words
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36
Q

What can ltm be split up into

A

Declarative (explicit) and procedural (implicit)

Explicit - memories hat can be inspected and recalled consciously

Implicit - memories that are unable to be consciously recalled

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37
Q

Episodic memory

A
  • a long term memory store for personal events
  • it includes memories of when the events occurred and of the people, objects, places and behaviours involved
  • memories from this store have to be retrieved consciously and with effort
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38
Q

What is involved in episodic memory

A
  • they are ‘time stamped’
  • type of declarative memory
  • prefrontal cortex is involved in initial coding with consolidation and storage involving the neocortex and hippocampus
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39
Q

Semantic memory

A
  • a long term memory store of our knowledge of the world
  • this includes facts and our knowledge of what words and concepts mean
  • these memories usually need to be recalled deliberately
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40
Q

What is involved in semantic memory

A
  • type of declarative memory
  • the conscious recall is of facts that have meaning
  • hippocampus, frontal lobes and temporal lobes are involved
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41
Q

Procedural memory

A
  • a long term memory store of our knowledge of how to do things
  • this includes our memories of learned skills
  • we usually recall these memories without making a conscious or deliberate effort
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42
Q

What is involved in procedural memory

A
  • procedural memory
  • the neocortex including the primary motor cortex, cerebellum and prefrontal cortex are involved
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43
Q

Working memory model

A

A representation of stm that suggests that stm is a dynamic processor of different types of information using sub-units coordinated by a central decision-making system

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44
Q

Central executive

A

The component of WMM that coordinates the activities of the three subsystems in memory. It also allocates processing resources to those activities

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45
Q

Phonological loop

A

The component of WMM that processes information in terms of sound. This includes written and spoken material. It is divided into the phonological store and the articulatory process

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46
Q

Visio-spatial sketchpad

A

The component of WMM that processes visual and spatial information in a mental space often called the ‘inner eye’

47
Q

Episodic buffer

A

The component of WMM that brings together material from the other subsystems into a single memory rather than separate strands. It is also bridge between working memory and ltm.

48
Q

Features of each store in the WMM model

A

Central executive:
coding = all sensory forms
Capacity = one strand of info at a time

Phonological loop:
Coding = auditory
Capacity = amount of info spoken aloud in 2 seconds

Visio-spatial sketchpad:
Coding = visual and spatial
Capacity = 3 or 4 objects

Episodic buffer:
Coding = all sensory forms
Capacity = 4 chunks of info

49
Q

Role of the working memory model

A
  • aimed to overcome problems of msm
  • Baddeley and hitch developed the WMM which focuses specifically on the workings of stm
  • Atkinson and shiffrins msm was criticised for over-simplifying stm and ltm as a single memory store, so the WMM alternatively proposed that stm is composed of three, limited capacity stores
50
Q

Role of central executive

A
  • manages attention
    • Controls information in all sensory forms but is only able to deal with one strand of info at a time
  • limitation is that it simply describes it rather than being explanatory
51
Q

Role of phonological loop

A
  • temporarily retains language based info in auditory form and holds the amount of information that can be spoken out loud in two seconds
  • consists of an articulatory rehearsal process and the phonological store:
  • articulatory rehearsal process (inner voice) of language, allows maintenance rehearsal. This includes any language presented visually that is then converted to a phonological state. It involves sub vocal repetition
  • the phonological store (inner ear) which holds auditory speech info and the order in which it was heard
52
Q

Role of Visio-spatial sketchpad

A
  • temporarily retains visual and spatial info (colour, form, space/distance)
  • can hold 3 or 4 objects at one time
  • consists of the visual cache which stores visual information about form and colour: the inner scribe which deals with spatial relationships and the arrangement of objects
53
Q

Role of episodic buffer

A
  • a later addition which facilitates communication between the components of the WMM and ltm
  • it integrates info from the other stores and maintains a sense of time sequencing
  • can hold 4 chunks of info
54
Q

Difference between episodic buffer and central executive

A

Central executive is the sorter. Info arrives after the ce has paid attention. It then controls where the info goes - pl or Vss
(Doesn’t process info but separates it)

Episodic buffer is the link between the ce and ltm. Before it was introduced there was no way info from the ltm could enter the WMM. The eb also holds information together and remembers the sequence
(Brings it all together - finished product)

55
Q

Interference theory

A
  • forgetting because one memory blocks another, causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten
  • explanation for forgetting in ltm. Once info reaches ltm, it i more or less permanent, therefore forgetting is thought to occur because we cannot access the information, even though it is thought to be available
  • basic theory states that interference occurs when information that is similar in format gets in the way of the info that someone is trying to recall
56
Q

Proactive interference

A

Forgetting occurs when older memories that are already stores disrupt the recall of newer memories

The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar

57
Q

Retroactive interference

A

Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories that are already stored

The degree of forgetting is greater when memories are similar

58
Q

Effects of similarity - aim

A

McGeoch and McDonald investigated retroactive interference

59
Q

Effects of similarity - procedure

A

Participants had to learn a list of 10 words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy. They then had to learn another list of words. There were 6 different conditions, each with a different second word list to remember

1 - synonyms
2 - antonyms
3 - unrelated words
4 - none sense syllables
5 - 3 digit numbers
6 - no new list

60
Q

Effects of similarity - findings

A

Recall of the original list was dependent on the nature of the second list

The most similar material, group 1 synonyms, produced the worst recall

61
Q

Effects of similarity - conclusions

A

This shows that interference is strongest when the memories are similar

62
Q

What is the retrieval failure theory?

A

A form of forgetting.
It occurs when we do not have the necessary use to access memory.
The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided

63
Q

What is a cue?

A

A ‘trigger’ of information. Such cues may e meaningful or may be indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning. They can be external (environmental context) or internal (mood or state)

64
Q

The encoding specificity principle

A

Recall of information is best when there is a large overlap between the information available at the time of retrieval (cues) and the info in the memory trace (from learning)

65
Q

Context-dependent forgetting

A

A form of forgetting where recall occurs in a different external setting to coding

66
Q

State-dependent forgetting

A

A form of forgetting where recall occurs in a different internal setting to coding

67
Q

How do context and sate dependent forgetting work together

A

When info is initially placed in a memory, associated cues are stored at the same time. The suggestion is that internal ad external cues can help facilitate recall of a LTM.

If these cues are not available at the time of recall, it may make it appear as though info has been forgotten i.e context and state dependent forgetting

68
Q

How can the chances of recalling the memory be increased?

A

If the context and state of the individual are similar at recall to the situation where the memory was originally placed

69
Q

Godden and Baddeley’s aim

A

To investigate context dependent forgetting

70
Q

Godden and Baddeley’s procedure

A

Divers learnt. Last of words either underwater or on land and were then asked to recall the words either underwater or on land

1
Learning - land
Recall - land

2
Learning - land
Recall - underwater

3
Learning - underwater
Recall - land

4
Learning - underwater
Recall - underwater

71
Q

Godden and Baddeley’s findings

A

N conditions 1 and 4, where learning and recall conditions matched, recall was 40% higher than in non-matching conditions

72
Q

Godden and Baddeley’s conclusions

A

External cues available at learning help to trigger memories if they are also there at recall

73
Q

Carter and cassaday’s aim

A

To investigate state-dependent forgetting

74
Q

Carter ad cassaday’s procedure

A

Antihistamine drugs were given to their participants, making them feel drowsy. They had to earn a list of words and passages of prose and then recall the information, when they were wither under the influence of the drugs or in a ‘normal state’.

1
Learning - on drug
Recall - on drug

2
Learning - on drug
Recall - not on drug

3
Learning - not on drug
Recall - on drug

4
Learning - not on drug
Recall - not on drug

75
Q

Carter and cassaday’s findings

A

In conditions where there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall, performance on the memory test was significantly worse

76
Q

Carter and cassaday’s conclusions

A

Internal cues available at learning help to trigger memories i they are also there at recall

77
Q

What is an eyewitness testimony

A

The evidence given in court or a police investigation, by someone who as witnessed a crime or accident

78
Q

What is a misleading information

A

Incorrect information given to an eyewitness following an event. It gives them the wrong impression. This can be during post-event discussion or take the form of leading questions

79
Q

What is a leading question

A

A question which, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer

Decreases accuracy

80
Q

What is post-event discussion

A

Occurs when there is more than one witness to an event. Witnesses may discuss what they have seen with co-witnesses or with other people.

Repeat interviewing also creates a form of this. It may influence the accuracy of each witness’ recall of the event

81
Q

What were the 2 experiments loftus and palmer conducted to investigate leading questions

A

Experiment 1 - investigating the effect of leading questions on EWT

Experiment 2 - investigating the effects of leading questions on later memory

82
Q

Experiment 1 procedure

A
  • 45 American students - 5 groups of 9
  • all participants watched a video of a car crash, answered a questionnaire and were asked specific questions about the speed of the car
  • loftus and palmer manipulated the verb used in the question e.g. “ how fast were the cars going when they___ with each other?”

Simon - smashed
Cowell - collided
Bit - bumped
His - hit
Cat - contacted

83
Q

Experiment 1 findings

A

They found that the estimated speed was affected by the very used

Smashed - 40.8mph
Contacted - 31.8mph

84
Q

Experiment 1 conclusions

A

The results clearly show that the accuracy of EWT is affected by leading questions and that a single word in a question can significantly affect the accuracy of our judgements

85
Q

Experiment 2 procedure

A
  • 150 students - 3 groups of 50
  • all students watched a one-minute video depicting a car accident and were then given a questionnaire to complete
  • one group was asked “how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” One was asked “hit” and the control group was not asked about the speed of the vehicles
  • one week later the participants returned and were asked a series of questions about the accident. The critical question was “did you see any broken glass?” There was no broken glass
86
Q

Experiment 2 findings

A

The verb smashed has connotations of faster speeds and broken glass and this question led the participants to report seeing something that was not actually present

Smashed - 16 said broken glass

Hit - 7 said broken glass

Control - 6 said broken glass

87
Q

Experiment 2 conclusions

A

Their memory for the original event was distorted by the question used one week earlier, demonstrating the power of leading questions

88
Q

How can leading questions impact EWT?

A

Response bias - the wording of the question has no real impact on the memories, it just influences how they decide to answer. When participants get a leading question like ‘smashed’ it encourages them to choose a higher speed estimate

Substitution explanation - the wording of a Question can actually change the memory. This was demonstrated in loftus’ second experiment, where the participants had their memory altered depending on which word they heard in the original question

89
Q

Gabert et al’s aim

A

Investigated the effect of post-event discussion on the accuracy of EWT

90
Q

Gabert et al’s procedure

A
  • 60 students and 60 older adults recruited from a local community. They watched a video of a girl stealing money from a wallet, but it had been filmed from different points
  • participants were either tested individually (control) in pairs (co-witness) on their recall
  • participants in the co-witness group were told that they had watched the same video, but they had seen different perspectives of the same crime and only one person has actually witnessed the girl stealing. They discussed the crime together
  • all participants then completed a questionnaire, testing their memory of the event
91
Q

Gabert et al’s findings

A

71% of the witnesses in the co-witness group recalled information they had not actually seen

The control group did not recall any information that they had not seen

92
Q

Gabert et al’s conclusions

A

These results highlight the issue of post-event discussion and the powerful effect this can have on the accuracy of EWT

93
Q

What is anxiety

A

A state of emotional and physical arousal

Emotions include having worried thoughts and feelings of tension

Physical changes include an increased heart rate and sweatiness

Anxiety is a normal reaction to stressful situations but can affect the accuracy and detail of EWT

Thought to have a positive and negative effect on the accuracy of EWT

94
Q

How does anxiety have a negative impact on recall?

A

Loftus proposed the ‘weapon focus effect’, which suggests that the anxiety caused as a result of witnessing a weapon focuses the attention away from the potential perpetrators and reduces the accuracy of EWT

95
Q

Johnson and Scott’s procedure

A

Invited participants to a lab, where they were told to wait in the reception area. A receptionist went to run an errand, leaving the participant alone

Independent groups design, as participants were then exposed to one of two conditions

Lab experiment

Both groups were shown 50 photos and asked to identify the person who had left the lab

The participants were informed that the suspect may or may not be present in the photos

96
Q

What were the conditions in Johnson and Scott’s experiment

A

-‘no weapon condition’ - participants overheard an argument in the lab. An individual (the target) left the lab and walked past the participant with their hands covered in grease holding a pen

-‘weapon condition’ - participants overdone same argument and the sound of breaking glass. This was followed by an individual (target) walking into the reception area, holding a bloodied letter opener

97
Q

Johnson and Scott’s findings

A

Those who had witnessed he man holding the pen correctly identified the target 49% o the time compared to those who had witnessed the man holding a knife who correctly identified the target 33% of the time

98
Q

Johnson and Scott’s conclusions

A

Loftus claimed that the participants who were exposed to the knife has higher levels of anxiety and were more likely to focus their attention on the weapon and not the face of the target, a phenomenon known as the weapon focus effect.

Therefore, the anxiety associated with seeing a knife reduces the accuracy of EWT

99
Q

Yuille and cutshall’s procedure

A

Conducted a study into a real-life shooting. The shop owner shot a thief dead. There were 21 witnesses, 13 agreed to take part

Field study

Interviews happened 4-5 months after the incident and were compared to the original EWT interviews to the police at the time of the shooting.

Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported in each account.

The witnesses also rated their stress levels at the time of the incident on a 7 point scale and asked if they had any emotional problems since the event

100
Q

Yuille and cutshall’s findings

A

The witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount of accuracy after 5 months

Those who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate. About 88% compared to 75% for the less stressed group

101
Q

Yuille and cutshall’s conclusions

A

Anxiety can improve the accuracy of EWT

102
Q

What is the inverted u hypothesis

A

-deffenbacher applied yerkes and Dodsons hypothesis to explain the contradictions

  • this suggests that the relationship between accuracy and anxiety looks like an inverted u. Lower levels of anxiety reduced lower levels of recall accuracy. Memory becomes more accurate as the level of anxiety experienced increases
  • however, there comes a point where the optima level of anxiety is reached. This is the point of maximum accuracy. If an eyewitness experiences any more stress than this, their recall of the event suffers a drastic decline i.e. the recall accuracy decreases
103
Q

The standard police interview

A

Geiselman and colleagues identified several ways that standard police interview methodology could negatively Maputo eyewitnesses recall accuracy of crimes:

-regular jumps between memory modalities

-event recall in a non-chronological order

-false memories due to leading questions

104
Q

The cognitive interview

A

Geiselman et al integrated effective memory recall techniques into a new questioning methodology - the CI to achieve more detailed and accurate EWT

At the start of the interview, the interviewer attempts to help the witness feel relaxed and seeks to tailor their language to suit the individual. The interviewer aims to be non-judgemental and avoids personal comments throughout.

There are 4 techniques;
-report everything
-reinstate the context
-reverse the order
-change perspective

105
Q

Report everything

A

Witnesses are encouraged to include ever single detail of the event, even though it may seem irrelevant or the witness isn’t confident about it

106
Q

Why report everything?

A

Seemingly trivial details ma be important ad may trigger other important memories

107
Q

Reinstate the context

A

Witnesses should return to the original crime scene in their minds and imagine the environment and their emotions

108
Q

Why reinstate the context?

A

Related to context/state dependent forgetting. Reinstating physical and mental context may act as a cue or trigger to recall

109
Q

Reverse the order

A

Events should be recalled in a different chronological order to the original sequence

110
Q

Why reverse the order?

A

To prevent people reporting their expectations of how the event must have happened rather than the actual events

Prevents dishonesty as it is more difficult to produce an untruthful account in reverse order

111
Q

Change perspective

A

Witnesses should recall the incident from other people’s perspectives e.g. how it appeared to other witnesses/perpetrator

112
Q

Why change perspective?

A

To disrupt the effect of expectations and scheme on recall. It promotes a more ‘holistic’ view of the event which may enhance recall

113
Q

What does the CI focus on?

A

Utilising retrieval cues, as geiselman et al claimed that recalling details of an event in a variety of different contexts is key to ‘cueing’ retrieval of a large amount of accurate info from memory - which the standard police interview was restrictive in ding

114
Q

The enhanced cognitive interview

A

Fischer et al developed some additional elements to the CI to focus on the social dynamics of interactions e.g. the interviewer needs to know when to establish eye contact and when to relinquish it

The ECI also includes ideas such as reducing eyewitness anxiety, minimising distractions, getting the witness to speak slowly and asking open-ended questions

Psychology paper 1 (1 decks)

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