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Psychology Paper 1 > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Coding

A

Information is stored in memory in different forms, depending on the memory state
Process of converting informations between different forms

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2
Q

Coding
Baddeley

A

Gave different lists of words to four groups of participants to remember
Group 1- acoustically similar
Group 2- acoustically dissimilar
Group 3- semantically similar
Group 4- semantically dissimilar
Asked to recall them in order
STM- did worse with acoustically similar words
LTM- did worse with semantically similar words

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3
Q

LTM and STM coding

A

STM- acoustically coded
LTM- semantically coded

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4
Q

Coding
Ao3

A

Strength- separate memory stores
- identified a clear difference between two memory stores
Limitation- artificial stimuli
- word lists had no personal meaning to participants

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5
Q

Capacity

A

The amount of information that can be held in a memory store

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6
Q

Capacity
Digit Span
Jacobs

A

Researcher read out four digits and participants recalls out loud
Increased the digit span each time
Found the mean digits across all participants was 9.3 items
Mean span for letter was 7.3

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7
Q

Capacity
Span of memory and chunking
Miller

A

Made observations of everyday practice
Noted that things come in sevens
Span of STM is 7 plus or minus 2

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8
Q

Chunking

A

Grouping digits or letters into units or chunks

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9
Q

Capacity
Ao3

A

Strength- A valid study
- Jacobs study has been replicated
Limitation- Not so many chunks
- Cowan; reviewed other research and concluded that STM capacity was 4 plus or minus 1

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10
Q

Duration of STM
Peterson and Peterson (1959)

A

Students counted backwards from a 3 digit number to prevent any mental rehearsal of the consonant syllable
Told to stop counting after varying periods of time 3,6,9,12,15,18
Found after 3 seconds, recall was 80%
After 18 seconds, recall was 3%
STM duration may be about 18 seconds

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11
Q

Duration of LTM
Bahrick

A

Studied American participants using their high school year books
Photo recognition and free recall
If tested within 15 years, photo recognition we as 90% and free recall was 60%
If tested after 48 years, photo recognition was 70% and 30% for free recall

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12
Q

Duration
Ao3

A

Limitation- Meaningless stimuli in STM
- stimulus material was artificial, lacked external validity
Strength- High external validity for LTM
- investigated meaningful memories

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13
Q

Multi-store memory model

A

Stimulus— Sensory register—STM—LTM

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14
Q

Multi-store memory model
Sensory register

A

All stimuli from the environment pass into the sensory register
Comprises of a register per sense
Duration is less than a second
Info only passes through if you pay attention to it

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15
Q

Multi-store memory model
Short term memory

A

Temporary store
Coded acoustically
Duration of 18 seconds unless rehearsed
Maintenance rehearsal
If rehearsal is long enough, passes into LTM

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16
Q

Multi-store memory model
Long term memory

A

Potentially permanent memory store
Information has been rehearsed for a prolonged time
Coded semtnatically
Recall information from LTM to STM is called retrieval

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17
Q

Multi-store memory model
Ao3

A

Strength- Research support
- studies show that STM and LTM are different
Limitation- More than one STM store
- KF study
Limitation- Elaborative rehearsal
- Prolonged rehearsal not needed for transfer to LTM

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18
Q

Types of long term memory
Episodic

A

Ability to recall events from out lives
Conscious effort to recall
Time stamped
Interwoven to produce a single memory

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19
Q

Types of long term memory
Semantic

A

Shared knowledge of the world
Less personal
Immense collection of material which is constantly being added to
Less vulnerable to distortion

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20
Q

Types of long term memory
Procedural memory

A

Memory for actions, skills and how we do things
Recalled unconsciously
Difficulty to explain to someone else
How to ride a bike

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21
Q

Types of long term memory
Ao3

A

Strength- Clinical evidence
- HM and Clive Wearing
Limitation- Conflicting neuroimaging evidence
- Conflicting research findings linking types of LTM to areas of the brain
Strength- Real-world application
- Understanding types of LTM allows psychologists to help people with memory problems

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22
Q

Working memory model

A

Explanation of how STM is organised and how it functions
Concerned with the mental space that is active when we are temp rotation storing and manipulating information

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23
Q

Working memory model
Central executive

A

Supervisory role
Monitors incoming data
Does not store information

24
Q

Working memory model
Phonological loop

A

Deals with auditory information
Preserves the order in which the information arrives
Phonological store; words you hear
Articulatory process; allows maintenance rehearsal

25
Q

Working memory model
Visio-spatial sketch pad

A

Stores visual/spatial information when required
Visual cache; stores visual data
Inner scribe; records the arrangement of objects in the visual field

26
Q

Working memory model
Episodic buffer

A

Temporary store for information I
Integrates visual, spatial and verbal information processed by other stores
Maintains a sense of time sequencing

27
Q

Working memory model
Ao3

A

Strength- Clinical evidence
- KF
Strength- Dual task performance
- support the separate existence of the VSS
Limitation- Nature of the central executive
- Lack of clarity; needs to be clearly specified

28
Q

Explanations of forgetting
Interference

A

Occurs when two pieces of information disrupt each other, resulting in forgetting of one or both, or in some distortion of memory
Been proposed as mainly an explanation for forgetting LTM

29
Q

Explanations of forgetting
Proactive interference

A

Old memories interfere with new memories

30
Q

Explanations of forgetting
Retroactive interference

A

Newer memories interfere with older memories

31
Q

Explanations of forgetting
Interference- research on effects on similarity
McGeoch and McDonald

A

Studied retroactive interference
Participants had to learn a list of 10 words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy
They then learned a new list
Found when participants were ask ed to recall the original lists, the most similar material had the worst recall

32
Q

Explanations of forgetting
Interference
Explanation of the effects of similarity

A

Could be due to proactive interference; previously stored information makes new similar information more difficult to store
Could be due to retroactive interference; new information overwrites previous similar memories

33
Q

Explanations of forgetting
Interference
Ao3

A

Strength- Real world interference
- Baddeley and Hitch rugby players
Limitation- Interference and cues
- interference is temporary and can be overcome by using cues
Strength- Support from drug studies
- Coenen and Luijtelaar; drug improved recall of material learned beforehand

34
Q

Explanations of forgetting
Retrieval failure

A

People forget information may be due to insufficient cues
When information is initially placed in memory, associated cues are stored at the same time
If these cues are not availed at the time of recall, it may appear as if the information has been forgotten, but it is due to retrieval failure

35
Q

Explanations of forgetting
Retrieval failure
Encode it specificity principle
Tulving (1983)

A

Reviewed research into retrieval failure
Discovered a consistent pattern to the findings
States that a cue has to be present at encoding and present at retrieval

36
Q

Explanations of forgetting
Retrieval failure
Context dependent forgetting

A

Recall depends on external cue

37
Q

Explanations of forgetting
Retrieval failure
State-dependant forgetting

A

Recall depends on internal cues

38
Q

Explanations of forgetting
Retrieval failure
Research on context-dependent forgetting
Godden and Baddeley

A

Studied deep sea divers
Learnt a list of words and recalled either on land or in the sea
Found accurate recall was 40% lower in the non-matching conditions

39
Q

Explanations of forgetting
Retrieval failure
Research on state-dependent forgetting
Carter and Cassaday

A

Gave antihistamine drugs to their participants
Had to learn a list of words and recall them either on or off the drug
Found that matching conditions did the best on the memory test

40
Q

Explanations of forgetting
Retrieval failure
Ao3

A

Strength- Real-world application
- Retrieval cues can help to overcome some forgetting in everyday situations
Strength- Research support
- Godden & Baddeley and Carter & Cassidy
Limitation- Recall versus recognition
- Context effects may depend on the type of memory being tested

41
Q

Eye witness testimony
Misleading information
Leading questions

A

Wording of the question may lead or mislead people to give a certain answer
Particular issue for eyewitness testimony because police questions may direct a witness to give a particular answer

42
Q

Eye witness testimony
Misleading information
Leading questions
Loftus and Palmer procedure

A

Asked participants to watch film clips of car accidents
Asked them ‘how fast were the cards going when they VERB each other?’
Five verbs; hit, contacted, bumped, collided, smashed

43
Q

Eye witness testimony
Misleading information
Leading questions
Loftus and Palmer results

A

Hit- 34.0
Contacted- 31.8
Bumped- 38.1
Collided- 39.3
Smashed- 40.5

44
Q

Eye witness testimony
Misleading information
Leading questions and their affect on EWT

A

Response bias explanation suggests that the wording of the question has no real effect on the participants memories, but just influences how they decide to answer

45
Q

Eye witness testimony
Misleading information
Leading questions
Loftus and Palmer second experiment

A

Supported the substitution explanation, which proposes that the wording of a leading question changes the participants memory of the film clip
Shown because participants who originally heard smashed were later more likely to report seeing broken glass than those who heard hit

46
Q

Eye witness testimony
Misleading information
Research on post-event discussion
Gabbert et al

A

Studied participants in pairs
Each participant watched a video of the same crime but filmed from different points of view
Both participants discussed what they had seen before individually completed a test of recall
Found that 71% of the participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event they didn’t see but picked up in the discussion

47
Q

Eye witness testimony
Misleading information
Post event discussion
Memory contamination

A

When co-witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other, their eyewitness testimonies may become altered or distorted
Because they combine information from other witnesses with their own memories

48
Q

Eye witness testimony
Misleading information
Post event discussion
Memory conformity

A

Witnesses often go along with each other to win social approval or because they believe the other witness are right and they are wrong
The memory is unchanged

49
Q

Eye witness testimony
Misleading information
Ao3

A

Strength- Real world application
- important uses in criminal justice system
Limitation- Evidence again substitution
- More accurate for some aspects of an event than for others
Limitation- Evidence challenging memory conformity
- Skagerberg and Wrigth; participants discussed video clips and often did not report what they had seen or heard from other but a blend of the two

50
Q

Eye witness testimony
Effects of anxiety

A

Strong emotional and physical effects
Not clear whether these effects make eyewitness recall better or worse

51
Q

EWT
Negative effect on recall
Johnson and Scott

A

Participants believed they were taking part in a lab study
Low anxiety- man with a pen and greasy hands
High anxiety- man with knife and blood
49% low anxiety could identify man
33% in high anxiety could identify man

52
Q

EWT
Anxiety
Deffenbacher

A

Reviewed 21 studies of EWT
Found contradictory findings on the effects of anxiety

53
Q

EWT
Anxiety
Ao3

A

Limitation- Unusualness and not anxiety
- Pickle
Strength- Support for negative effects
- Valentine and Mestou
Strength- Support for positive effects
- Christianson and Hübinette

54
Q

Cognitive Interview
Four techniques

A

Report everything
Reinstate the context
Reverse the order
Change perspective

55
Q

Cognitive interview
Enhanced cognitive interview

A

Additional elects to CI
Focus on the social dynamics of the interaction

56
Q

Cognitive interview
Ao3

A

Strength- support for effectiveness
- Kohnken et al; CI gave 41% increase in accuracy
Limitation- some elements may be more useful
- Milne and Bull; combination of report everything and reinstate context better
Limitation- CI time-consuming
- Takes more time and training than the standard interview

Psychology Paper 1 (4 decks)

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