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Psychology Paper 1 > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Coding

A

Information is stored in memory in different forms, depending on the memory state
Process of converting informations between different forms

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2
Q

Coding
Baddeley

A

Gave different lists of words to four groups of participants to remember
Group 1- acoustically similar
Group 2- acoustically dissimilar
Group 3- semantically similar
Group 4- semantically dissimilar
Asked to recall them in order
STM- did worse with acoustically similar words
LTM- did worse with semantically similar words

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3
Q

LTM and STM coding

A

STM- acoustically coded
LTM- semantically coded

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4
Q

Coding
Ao3

A

Strength- separate memory stores
- identified a clear difference between two memory stores
Limitation- artificial stimuli
- word lists had no personal meaning to participants

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5
Q

Capacity

A

The amount of information that can be held in a memory store

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6
Q

Capacity
Digit Span
Jacobs

A

Researcher read out four digits and participants recalls out loud
Increased the digit span each time
Found the mean digits across all participants was 9.3 items
Mean span for letter was 7.3

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7
Q

Capacity
Span of memory and chunking
Miller

A

Made observations of everyday practice
Noted that things come in sevens
Span of STM is 7 plus or minus 2

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8
Q

Chunking

A

Grouping digits or letters into units or chunks

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9
Q

Capacity
Ao3

A

Strength- A valid study
- Jacobs study has been replicated
Limitation- Not so many chunks
- Cowan; reviewed other research and concluded that STM capacity was 4 plus or minus 1

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10
Q

Duration of STM
Peterson and Peterson (1959)

A

Students counted backwards from a 3 digit number to prevent any mental rehearsal of the consonant syllable
Told to stop counting after varying periods of time 3,6,9,12,15,18
Found after 3 seconds, recall was 80%
After 18 seconds, recall was 3%
STM duration may be about 18 seconds

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11
Q

Duration of LTM
Bahrick

A

Studied American participants using their high school year books
Photo recognition and free recall
If tested within 15 years, photo recognition we as 90% and free recall was 60%
If tested after 48 years, photo recognition was 70% and 30% for free recall

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12
Q

Duration
Ao3

A

Limitation- Meaningless stimuli in STM
- stimulus material was artificial, lacked external validity
Strength- High external validity for LTM
- investigated meaningful memories

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13
Q

Multi-store memory model

A

Stimulus— Sensory register—STM—LTM

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14
Q

Multi-store memory model
Sensory register

A

All stimuli from the environment pass into the sensory register
Comprises of a register per sense
Duration is less than a second
Info only passes through if you pay attention to it

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15
Q

Multi-store memory model
Short term memory

A

Temporary store
Coded acoustically
Duration of 18 seconds unless rehearsed
Maintenance rehearsal
If rehearsal is long enough, passes into LTM

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16
Q

Multi-store memory model
Long term memory

A

Potentially permanent memory store
Information has been rehearsed for a prolonged time
Coded semtnatically
Recall information from LTM to STM is called retrieval

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17
Q

Multi-store memory model
Ao3

A

Strength- Research support
- studies show that STM and LTM are different
Limitation- More than one STM store
- KF study
Limitation- Elaborative rehearsal
- Prolonged rehearsal not needed for transfer to LTM

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18
Q

Types of long term memory
Episodic

A

Ability to recall events from out lives
Conscious effort to recall
Time stamped
Interwoven to produce a single memory

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19
Q

Types of long term memory
Semantic

A

Shared knowledge of the world
Less personal
Immense collection of material which is constantly being added to
Less vulnerable to distortion

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20
Q

Types of long term memory
Procedural memory

A

Memory for actions, skills and how we do things
Recalled unconsciously
Difficulty to explain to someone else
How to ride a bike

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21
Q

Types of long term memory
Ao3

A

Strength- Clinical evidence
- HM and Clive Wearing
Limitation- Conflicting neuroimaging evidence
- Conflicting research findings linking types of LTM to areas of the brain
Strength- Real-world application
- Understanding types of LTM allows psychologists to help people with memory problems

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22
Q

Working memory model

A

Explanation of how STM is organised and how it functions
Concerned with the mental space that is active when we are temp rotation storing and manipulating information

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23
Q

Working memory model
Central executive

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A

Supervisory role
Monitors incoming data
Does not store information

24
Q

Working memory model
Phonological loop

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A

Deals with auditory information
Preserves the order in which the information arrives
Phonological store; words you hear
Articulatory process; allows maintenance rehearsal

25
Working memory model Visio-spatial sketch pad
Stores visual/spatial information when required Visual cache; stores visual data Inner scribe; records the arrangement of objects in the visual field
26
Working memory model Episodic buffer
Temporary store for information I Integrates visual, spatial and verbal information processed by other stores Maintains a sense of time sequencing
27
Working memory model Ao3
Strength- Clinical evidence - KF Strength- Dual task performance - support the separate existence of the VSS Limitation- Nature of the central executive - Lack of clarity; needs to be clearly specified
28
Explanations of forgetting Interference
Occurs when two pieces of information disrupt each other, resulting in forgetting of one or both, or in some distortion of memory Been proposed as mainly an explanation for forgetting LTM
29
Explanations of forgetting Proactive interference
Old memories interfere with new memories
30
Explanations of forgetting Retroactive interference
Newer memories interfere with older memories
31
Explanations of forgetting Interference- research on effects on similarity McGeoch and McDonald
Studied retroactive interference Participants had to learn a list of 10 words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy They then learned a new list Found when participants were ask ed to recall the original lists, the most similar material had the worst recall
32
Explanations of forgetting Interference Explanation of the effects of similarity
Could be due to proactive interference; previously stored information makes new similar information more difficult to store Could be due to retroactive interference; new information overwrites previous similar memories
33
Explanations of forgetting Interference Ao3
Strength- Real world interference - Baddeley and Hitch rugby players Limitation- Interference and cues - interference is temporary and can be overcome by using cues Strength- Support from drug studies - Coenen and Luijtelaar; drug improved recall of material learned beforehand
34
Explanations of forgetting Retrieval failure
People forget information may be due to insufficient cues When information is initially placed in memory, associated cues are stored at the same time If these cues are not availed at the time of recall, it may appear as if the information has been forgotten, but it is due to retrieval failure
35
Explanations of forgetting Retrieval failure Encode it specificity principle Tulving (1983)
Reviewed research into retrieval failure Discovered a consistent pattern to the findings States that a cue has to be present at encoding and present at retrieval
36
Explanations of forgetting Retrieval failure Context dependent forgetting
Recall depends on external cue
37
Explanations of forgetting Retrieval failure State-dependant forgetting
Recall depends on internal cues
38
Explanations of forgetting Retrieval failure Research on context-dependent forgetting Godden and Baddeley
Studied deep sea divers Learnt a list of words and recalled either on land or in the sea Found accurate recall was 40% lower in the non-matching conditions
39
Explanations of forgetting Retrieval failure Research on state-dependent forgetting Carter and Cassaday
Gave antihistamine drugs to their participants Had to learn a list of words and recall them either on or off the drug Found that matching conditions did the best on the memory test
40
Explanations of forgetting Retrieval failure Ao3
Strength- Real-world application - Retrieval cues can help to overcome some forgetting in everyday situations Strength- Research support - Godden & Baddeley and Carter & Cassidy Limitation- Recall versus recognition - Context effects may depend on the type of memory being tested
41
Eye witness testimony Misleading information Leading questions
Wording of the question may lead or mislead people to give a certain answer Particular issue for eyewitness testimony because police questions may direct a witness to give a particular answer
42
Eye witness testimony Misleading information Leading questions Loftus and Palmer procedure
Asked participants to watch film clips of car accidents Asked them ‘how fast were the cards going when they VERB each other?’ Five verbs; hit, contacted, bumped, collided, smashed
43
Eye witness testimony Misleading information Leading questions Loftus and Palmer results
Hit- 34.0 Contacted- 31.8 Bumped- 38.1 Collided- 39.3 Smashed- 40.5
44
Eye witness testimony Misleading information Leading questions and their affect on EWT
Response bias explanation suggests that the wording of the question has no real effect on the participants memories, but just influences how they decide to answer
45
Eye witness testimony Misleading information Leading questions Loftus and Palmer second experiment
Supported the substitution explanation, which proposes that the wording of a leading question changes the participants memory of the film clip Shown because participants who originally heard smashed were later more likely to report seeing broken glass than those who heard hit
46
Eye witness testimony Misleading information Research on post-event discussion Gabbert et al
Studied participants in pairs Each participant watched a video of the same crime but filmed from different points of view Both participants discussed what they had seen before individually completed a test of recall Found that 71% of the participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event they didn’t see but picked up in the discussion
47
Eye witness testimony Misleading information Post event discussion Memory contamination
When co-witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other, their eyewitness testimonies may become altered or distorted Because they combine information from other witnesses with their own memories
48
Eye witness testimony Misleading information Post event discussion Memory conformity
Witnesses often go along with each other to win social approval or because they believe the other witness are right and they are wrong The memory is unchanged
49
Eye witness testimony Misleading information Ao3
Strength- Real world application - important uses in criminal justice system Limitation- Evidence again substitution - More accurate for some aspects of an event than for others Limitation- Evidence challenging memory conformity - Skagerberg and Wrigth; participants discussed video clips and often did not report what they had seen or heard from other but a blend of the two
50
Eye witness testimony Effects of anxiety
Strong emotional and physical effects Not clear whether these effects make eyewitness recall better or worse
51
EWT Negative effect on recall Johnson and Scott
Participants believed they were taking part in a lab study Low anxiety- man with a pen and greasy hands High anxiety- man with knife and blood 49% low anxiety could identify man 33% in high anxiety could identify man
52
EWT Anxiety Deffenbacher
Reviewed 21 studies of EWT Found contradictory findings on the effects of anxiety
53
EWT Anxiety Ao3
Limitation- Unusualness and not anxiety - Pickle Strength- Support for negative effects - Valentine and Mestou Strength- Support for positive effects - Christianson and Hübinette
54
Cognitive Interview Four techniques
Report everything Reinstate the context Reverse the order Change perspective
55
Cognitive interview Enhanced cognitive interview
Additional elects to CI Focus on the social dynamics of the interaction
56
Cognitive interview Ao3
Strength- support for effectiveness - Kohnken et al; CI gave 41% increase in accuracy Limitation- some elements may be more useful - Milne and Bull; combination of report everything and reinstate context better Limitation- CI time-consuming - Takes more time and training than the standard interview

Psychology Paper 1 (4 decks)

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