Memory 1 Long term (storage/retrieval/forgotten)

Question 1

LEVELS OF PROCESSING THEORY
 (Craik and Lockhart, 1972; Howard, 1995; Conway, 2002)

Answer 1

retention of items depends on level of depth of processing

shallow (e.g., physical properties of words) vs deep (e.g., meaning of words) processing

deeper levels of presentation: more permanent memory traces

maintenance vs elaborative rehearsal

Question 2

Maintenance and Elaborative rehearsal

who when what?

Answer 2

Craik & Lockhart (1972) distinguished between maintenance and elaborative rehearsal.

MAINTENANCE rehearsal usually takes place at the level of phonemic analysis (simply repeating the material over and over) and does not typically result in durable memories, though it may be useful for short-term storage of items such as telephone numbers.

ELABORATIVE rehearsal consists of forming semantic associations with the material, which increases the number of retrieval routes.

Question 3

Craik and Tulving’s experiment (1975):
looked at effects of elaboration of processing

CRAIK AND TULVING - 1975

Answer 3

Experimental recognition memory task:
3 conditions (randomised):

SHALLOW processing: upper/lower case
- is the word in capital letters?
(BOOK)

DEEP processing: meaning/semantics
- does this word fit in this sentence?
(‘I saw a…..in the pond’ -duck)

MIDDLE processing: rhyme
- does the following word rhyme with mat? (hat)
I

Question 4

CRAIK AND TULVING - 1975

continued - recognition task - shallow deep middle

Answer 4

words in conditions above were mixed which words which were not (control words)

participants are asked: do you recognise having seen this word in the task? yes or no?

task assumes incidental learning (participant is not told in advance that a memory test is going to be given)

Hypothesis: what would you predict?

Question 5

CRAIK AND TULVING - 1975 what were they looking at (short answer)

Answer 5

looked at effects of elaboration of processing

deep, shallow middle

Question 6

CRAIK AND… (who helped and when?)

Answer 6

TULVING 1975

Question 7

TULVING AND….(who helped and when?)

Answer 7

CRAIK 1975

Question 8

RESULTS OF THE Craik and Tulving experiment.

Answer 8

Results:

(sentence) (rhyme) (case type)
deep > middle > shallow
processing processing processing

> means higher recognition than

Question 9

Problems with levels of processing

Answer 9

how accurately can we define/measure depth of processing? can we provide measures that are independent of memory performance. If not, the definition of depth of processing involves circular reasoning

Nelson & McEvoy: phonemic processing can be as effective as semantic processing (a phonemic cue, such as “IME”, for a memory list word “DIME”, can be just as effective as the semantic cue “an American coin”). Hunt & Elliot (1980): words with a distinctive orthography (e.g., “phlegm”) can be better recalled than words with a regular orthography.

Question 10

further Problems with levels of processing

Answer 10

when semantic processing has become automatic with extensive practice, it no longer results in better recall. Fiske & Schneider (1984): extensive practice in a word categorisation task produced poor word recognition

Processing is not necessarily sequential -from letter to meaning- but parallel

BUT emphasis on memory processes: theory is concerned with way in which information is coded (processed) rather than with the structure of memory

Question 11

ENCODING-SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE (Tulving, 1983)

Answer 11

trace (memory representation) contains not only information about the item but also information about the context (environment, mood, etc) in which the item is studied

CUE-dependent-forgetting includes:

CONTEXT-dependent forgetting (external context cues)

STATE-dependent forgetting (internal context cues)

Question 12

One reason why recognition is generally believed to be superior to recall:

Answer 12

the recognition situation provides some of the context in which the original learning took place

Question 13

Context-dependent forgetting
 (external context effects)


who what when

Answer 13

Godden & Baddeley (1975, 1980)

showed participants a series of words wither on land or under water

they were then asked to either recall (from sheer memory no cues) or recognise (from a sheet - cues) in the two different environments

recall was greater for words seen in water when the subject was in water., and the same for land learned to land recalled.

and recognition saw no change in the levels of recall (i.e. land learned words could be recognised on land AS WELL AS on water (and the same with water learned.

Godden and Baddeley deduced that EXTERNAL CONTEXT plays a part in memory recall but not so much recognition as with recognition the “cue” is already present in th,e list of words. L

Question 14

State-dependent forgetting 
(internal context effects)

Answer 14

person’s internal state can provide a context for learning: if the internal state that was present during learning can be reproduced during testing, superior retrieval may result.

Kenealy (1997) used music to induce sad or happy mood states during learning and retrieval and found superior performance when the learning and retrieval mood states were the same.

Question 15

Kenealy (1997)

Answer 15

used music to induce sad or happy mood states during learning and retrieval and found superior performance when the learning and retrieval mood states were the same.

Question 16

used music to induce sad or happy mood states during learning and retrieval and found superior performance when the learning and retrieval mood states were the same.

Answer 16

Kenealy (1997)

State-dependent forgetting 
(internal context effects)

Question 17

Eich and Metcalfe’s (1989)

Answer 17

“mood” experiment

participants studied whilst in an experimentally SAD and HAPPY mood

they then took tests whilst in both moods

the results showed that people who studied whilst sad did better in tests, on their studies, whilst sad than whilst happy

and those who studied while Happy did better in their tests on the material while Happy than while Sad

Think of mr metcalfe dressed as a member of the third (r)EICH . in nazi uniform doing a test whilst very happy and then while sad

his face shifting back and forth and he is at the end of the 80 when he build prey a manger.

Question 18

“mood” experiment

participants studied whilst in a experimentally SAD and HAPPY mood

Who and When

Answer 18

EICH and METCALFE 1989

Think of mr metcalfe dressed as a member of the third (r)EICH . in nazi uniform doing a test whilst very happy and then while sad

his face shifting back and forth and he is at the end of the 80 when he build prey a manger.

Question 19

GRANT et al (1998)

Answer 19

Copied Eich and Metcalfes experiment from 1989 but with noise conditions (quiet and noisy)

result; matching your learning environment to the test environment can facilitate memory recall in the test.

best environment - quiet- what a surprise.

Question 20

OTHER FACTORS THAT AID ENCODING, STUDYING AND RETRIEVING INFORMATION

Answer 20

IMAGERY: create an image that associates two things
ASSOCIATE: relate new information to what you already know
Creating connections, cues for remembering
SELF-RELAVENCE effect: relate information to yourself
ORGANIZING to-be-remembered information e.g. into separate folders with different subjects so that information can be accessed easily
ELABORATE (reflect on the information) and GENERATE (ask yourself questions about what you are learning) -Generation effect. This will facilitate encoding and retrieving information.
Highlighting is not enough!
Organize information -Helps reduce load on memory
TAKE BREAKS: distributed vs massed practice effect

Question 21

OTHER FACTORS THAT AID ENCODING, STUDYING AND RETRIEVING INFORMATION

KEY WORDS….

Answer 21

IMAGERY

CONSOLIDATE

ELABORATE - ask your self questions about the information

TAKE BREAKS

ORGANISING

GENERATE

ASSOCIATE.

SELF RELEVANCE

Question 22

FACTORS IN ENCODING

ICE TOGAS

Answer 22

IMAGERY

CONSOLIDATION

ELABORATE

TAKE BREAKS

ORGANISE

GENERATE

ASSOCIATE

SELF RELAVENCE

Question 23

FACTOR IN ENCODING;

ORGANIZING …….

Answer 23

…. to-be-remembered information e.g. into separate folders with different subjects so that information can be accessed easily

Question 24

ELABORATE

AND GENERATE

Answer 24

(reflect on the information) and GENERATE (ask yourself questions about what you are learning) -Generation effect. This will facilitate encoding and retrieving information.

Question 25

Repression:

MAY BE quizzed on it in the cog multiple choice

Answer 25

a special form of retrieval failure, usually assumed to be associated with traumatic incidents]

Question 26

1. Trace decay theory (STM AND LTM):

Answer 26

memory traces decay/fade automatically through the passage of time if the acquired knowledge/skills are not used/practised

Question 27

memory traces decay/fade automatically through the passage of time if the acquired knowledge/skills are not used/practised

what is this theory called?

Answer 27

1. Trace decay theory (STM AND LTM):

Question 28

2. Interference theory (STM):

Answer 28

memory traces are disrupted by other traces
(the greater the similarity between memory traces,

the greater the degree of interference)

RETROACTIVE INHIBITION: the forgetting of old information is caused by the learning of new information (retro = interference works backward)

PROACTIVE INHIBITION: the forgetting of new information is caused by the learning of old information acquired previously (pro= interference works forward)

(PRO MEANS FORWARD SO THE INTERFERENCE HAPPENS IN A FORWARD WAY)

Question 29

RETROACTIVE INHIBITION:

Answer 29

the forgetting of old information is caused by the learning of new information (retro = interference works backward)

Question 30

the forgetting of old information is caused by the learning of new information (retro = interference works backward)

Answer 30

RETROACTIVE INHIBITION:

Question 31

PROACTIVE INHIBITION

Answer 31

PROACTIVE INHIBITION: the forgetting of new information is caused by the learning of old information acquired previously (pro= interference works forward)

(PRO MEANS FORWARD SO THE INTERFERENCE HAPPENS IN A FORWARD WAY)

Question 32

the forgetting of new information is caused by the learning of old information acquired previously (pro= interference works forward)

(PRO MEANS FORWARD SO THE INTERFERENCE HAPPENS IN A FORWARD WAY)

Answer 32

PROACTIVE INHIBITION:

the forgetting of new information is caused by the learning of old information acquired previously (pro= interference works forward)

SO THE INTERFERENCE HAPPENS IN A FORWARD WAY)

Question 33

Wickens et al. (1972)

Answer 33

PRO ACTIVE INTERFERENCE (PI)

….presented participants with the names of three fruits to recall on each of THREE trials (after each trial participants had to count backwards for 10 s. to prevent rehearsal). Recall performance showed a PROGRESSIVE DETERIORATION after each successive trial (proactive interference).

Then on the fourth trial the three words presented came from the same category (fruit) or from a different category (professions, flowers or vegetables).

The more the category on the fourth trial differed semantically from “fruit”, the better recall: i.e., the proactive interference from the “fruit” items had less effect on a new semantic category.

This may be taken as evidence that information in short-term memory can be coded semantically

“THE FRUITS WERE GETTING IN THE WAY”.

THE NEW INFORMATION WAS FORGOTTEN MORE QUICKLY THANKS TO THE PREVIOUSly acquired INFORMATION

Question 34

PRO ACTIVE INTERFERENCE (PI)

WHO did the study and when?

Answer 34

Wickens et al. (1972)

think charles Wickens listing fruit

lisping like jonathon ross

Question 35

THE NEW INFORMATION WAS FORGOTTEN MORE QUICKLY THANKS TO THE PREVIOUS INFORMATION getting in the way

Answer 35

PRO ACTIVE INTERFERENCE (PI)

Wickens et al. (1972)

think charles Wickens listing fruit

Question 36

PRO ACTIVE INTERFERENCE (PI)

….presented participants with the names of three fruits to recall on each of THREE trials (after each trial participants had to count backwards for 10 s. to

Answer 36

prevent rehearsal.

Question 37

what happened when after 3 rounds of reciting lists of fruit after counting down from 10, they listed different categories of things (professions) i in the 4th round ??????

ooo what happened?

Answer 37

their memory improved

the new semantic category meant better recall

no OLD semantic data getting in the way!!!!!!

Wickens et al 1972

Question 38

In the 4th trial of Wickens experiment what 3 new categories were they tested on and how did they do in the tests

Answer 38

vegitables - small release from proactive interference

flowers - medium release from proactive interference

proffesions - large release from proactive interference

the greater the semantic difference in category the greater the release from proactive interference

Question 39

what is release from proactive interference

Answer 39

the greater the semantic difference in category the greater the release from proactive interference

Wickens 4th trial when he fully mixed it up!!

Question 40

What did Tulving put forward and study in 1983?

Answer 40

The encoding specificity principle.

Cue dependant forgetting

Which were state and context dependant forgetting.

Question 41

Incidental learning. What is it and which of these memory studies used it

Answer 41

Craik and Tulving 1975

Participants are not aware that there will be a memory test

So they don’t actively try to remember things

Hence the retention is incidental.

Incidental learning.