memories

Question 1

multi story model - the process

Answer 1

1) sensory story
2) attention ->
3) short term memory
4) transfer ->
5) long term store
6) retrieval <-

Question 2

multi story model - sensory store

Answer 2

duration - 0.5s
encoding - processed from senses: sight (iconic memory), sounds (echoic), touch (haptic)
capacity - unlimited

Question 3

multi story model - short term store

Answer 3

duration - 18-30s
encoding - acoustically
capacity - 7+/-2

Question 4

multi store model - long term memory

Answer 4

duration - lifetime
encoding - semantically (meaning)
capacity - unlimited

Question 5

2 key words to revive the multi store model

Answer 5

sequential and linear (in a sequence and a particular order)

Question 6

multi store model - duration evidence

Answer 6

WALSH & THOMPSON (1978)
- flashed images of “O” twice with v brief intervals between watch presentation.
- researchers recorded that Pts thought they could see continuous stimulus

• iconic sensory story has a duration of 500ms
• duration limited and dependant on age

Question 7

Multi store model - encoding evidence

Answer 7

BADDELEY (1966)
gave pts 4 sets of words
set 1= similar sounding
set 2= different sounding
set 3= similar meaning
set 4= different meaning
when asked to recall immediately, pts made more mistakes on words that sounded alike

Question 8

multi store model - capacity evidence

Answer 8

JACOBS (1887)
tested STM capacity with serial digit span method where pts are presented with increasingly long lists of numbers or letters and have to immediate recall them in the right order

capacity for numbers= 9.3 items
capacity for letters = 7.3 items

Question 9

one strength + one weakness of the multi store model

Answer 9

❌there’s case study research that disputes its validity
- patient KFs visual short term memory functioned but his verbal short term memory was very limited after an accident
- suggests that STM is not one single unitary component but has more than one section

✅the practical applications
- helps people with dementia or brain damage
- if they struggle to rehearse new info, we now know that writing things down and putting things on labels will help, as well as colour coding buttons on phones or remotes as it brings in elaborative rehearsal

Question 10

working memory model - 3 components

Answer 10

• CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
• phonological loop
• episodic buffer
• visuo-spatial sketchbad

Question 11

WMM - central executive (what is it + capacity + encoding)

Answer 11

• supervises + controls subcomponents
• decides which component is needed for a particular task
• co-ordinates the retrieval of info from our LTM
• switches our attention between tasks
  capacity = limited
  encoding = modality free

Question 12

central executive - strength and weakness

Answer 12

strength: practical application - many have issues with working memory as CE is slowed to coordinate all info is receives. this was resolved with extra time in exams etc

weakness: very vague in explanations and processes. also suggests it only has one CE which is unlikely.

Question 13

visuo-spatial sketchpad (what is it + one person suggestion (L) + capacity)

Answer 13

• deals with and holds visual and spatial info - “the inner eye”
• displays and manipulates info in STM
  LOGIE 1995 suggested subdivision - visuo cache = store
  capacity = limited (approx 3-4 objects)

Question 14

visuo-spatial sketchpad evidence

Answer 14

BROOKES 1968
Pts made to mentally visualise a letter and were asked questions about it. Had to respond in one of three different ways - 1. speaking, 2. tapping, 3. pointing at yes and no signs.

pts faster and more accurate when speaking and tapping.

when using same limited capacity component for same task they interfere with eachother - showing vss is limited processory

Question 15

visuo-spatial sketchpad - strengths and weaknesses

Answer 15

strength - plays important role in helping us keep track of where we are in relation to other objects as we move through our environment
weakness - model implies that all info starts visual then turns spatial - this is unlikely to be case all the time as (Lieberman) blind people have excellent spatial awareness but have never received any visual info. Lieberman suggests visual and spatial should be 2 separate component.

Question 16

phonological loop (what is it + capacity)

Answer 16

• holds words you hear (like inner ear), holds words for 1.5 - 2s
• articulatory process - used to rehearse verbal info from phonological store (memory traces in this decay in 1-2s but can be maintained by articulatory control process)
  capacity = limited (approx 2s)

Question 17

phonological loop evidence

Answer 17

BADDELEY 1975
pts recorded more short words in serial order than longer words - supports idea that capacity of PL is set by how long it takes to say words, this means aspects of WMM appear correct + credible.

Question 18

phonological loop Baddeley weakness

Answer 18

lacks ecological validity

Question 19

Episodic buffer (what is it? + capacity)

Answer 19

• designed to fill gap in model bc non of 3 components can be regarded as general storage that can combine several kinds of info
• weaves visual memories and phonological memories into single episodes which then gets stored in episodic STM
  capacity: limited - approx 4 chunks of info

Question 20

episodic buffer evidence

Answer 20

ALKHAKIFA 2009
patient with severely impaired LTM demonstrated STM of up to 25 items. suggests existence of episodic buffer that seems to hold items in WMM until they’re recalled.

Question 21

episodic buffer strength and weakness

Answer 21

strength: scientific ev from brain scans - episodic buffer seems to be in both hemispheres but particularly in hippocampus (memory part of brain)

weakness: has little info and is not understood fully - was added to WMM at later date, this lack of understanding impacts the credibility of this slave system.

Question 22

WMM 3 strengths

Answer 22

strengths
1) research from kf (suffered brain damage, impacted STM. however only impaired verbal info, visual was unaffected)
2) Brookes 1968, pts made to mentally visualise a letter, were then asked questions ab it and had to answer in one of 3 ways: 1) speaking 2) tapping 3) pointing. pts were faster + more accurate when speaking + tapping. (vss=limited processory)
3) practical application - park et al 1999, patients with schizophrenia tend to have problems with working memory that can be identified on dual tasks, as used in WMM. can therefore be diagnosed by testing individuals working memory.

Question 23

WMM 3 weaknesses

Answer 23

1) a lot of research comes from artificial lab experiments - lacks ecological validity (like brooke’s study, visualising letter and asking questions ab it=not realistic)
2) theoretical flaws, eg nature of CE unclear, might not be single entity - EVR case, patient had tumour removed, resulted in poor decision making skills but good reasoning skills.
3) contradictory evidence - LIEBERMAN 1980, criticises bc it implies info is visual and then spatial. but blind people have good spatial awareness yet have never received any visual info - thinks VSS should be split into 2 components (spatial and visual)

Question 24

types of LTM (who discovered this? name all 3, explain + examples + where are they located?)

Answer 24

TULVING 1972 proposed distinction between 3 diff types
1) procedural: responsible for knowing how to do things, takes no conscious thought. located in cerebellum. EG swimming, cycling.
2) semantic: responsible for story info ab the world, factual and takes conscious thought. located in hippocampus. EG general knowledge (capital of england) and meanings of words
3) episodic: responsible for storing info ab events. EG first day of school, wedding.

Question 25

proactive and retroactive definitions + examples + acronym to remember difference

Answer 25

proactive: when previous memories interfere with recent similar memories (getting new iPhone and struggling to adapt as you’re so used to old one)
retroactive: when recent memories interfere with previous similar memories (going back to old phone and not remember how to use it as you got so used to new one)
ACRONYM = PORN (PRO ACTIVE, OLD INTERFERES WITH NEW, RETROACTIVE, NEW INTERFERES WITH OLD)

Question 26

proactive and retroactive interference 3 strengths

Answer 26

1) research from Baddeley and Hitch 1977 (studied rugby players and asked both ones who had played every game of season as well as ones who had been off bc of injury names of teams they played at beginning - those who’d played all forgot more)
2) supported by everyday experience (iphone example)
3) practical application - when revising diff subjects it’s really important to keep them diff from eachother so memories from each one don’t interfere with others. EG having different coloured flashcards

Question 27

proactive and retroactive interference 2 weaknesses

Answer 27

1) lots of research comes from artificial lap experiments - lacks eco validity. EG keppel and underwood, being presents trigrams to recall is not realistic to rl, unrepresentative.
2) reductionist (doesn’t consider other valid explanations for forgetting)
EG - forgetting due to absence of cues. means it can’t be completely representative as it’s not considering all ideas.

Question 28

absense of context cues meaning

Answer 28

when external environment is different to how it was in coding. eg revising in your room may mean it’s more difficult to recall info in exam hall bc there’s no contextual cues

Question 29

absence of state cues meaning

Answer 29

occurs when internal environment or state is different at recall to how it was at coding. (how you are/ feel)

Question 30

absence of organisational cues meaning

Answer 30

recall improved if organisation gives structure which provides triggers - eg, categories, headings, etc

Question 31

retrieval failure due to absence of cues - 3 strengths

Answer 31

✅ research support - godden and baddeley (1975)
- had ppl learn words scuba diving as well as on dry land, then asked them all to recall the word lists scuba driving and on dry land. RESULTS:
sd + sd= 32%
land + land= 37%
sd + dry= 23%
dry + sd= 24%
- cues are important (same environment)
✅ help everyday experiences
- eg forgetting someone’s name when u def know it
- could be helped through cues like the 1st letter
✅ practical application
- helps to explain and prevent forgetting
- they use cctv, interviews, witnesses, victims - to try and ring bell to anyone and discover more

Question 32

retrieval failure due to absence of cues - 1 weakness

Answer 32

❌ only works for certain situations
- doesn’t explain repression (where emotionally threatening events are banished into unconscious mind to prevent feelings of anxiety)
- “motivated forgetting” although not aware it’s happened
- this explanation alone can’t explain all incidences of forgetting

Question 33

3 factors affecting the accuracy of Eye Witness Testimony

Answer 33

1) leading questions
2) post event discussion
3) anxiety

Question 34

leading questions (what is it? how’s it done?)

Answer 34

a question which is phrased in a way that suggests a certain answer
- often when eyewitness is given wrong cue and it muddles their memory causing them to doubt themselves

Question 35

leading questions support loftus and palmer (procedure and findings)

Answer 35

students watched film clips of car accidents and were asked Q ab them
Critical Question: “about how fast were the cars going when they … eachother?”
5 Conditions of IV
contacted - 31.8mph
bumped - 34mph
hit - 38.1
collided - 39.3
smashed - 40.8
- verbs that suggested cars were moving at higher speed had higher speed estimate

Question 36

leading questions - 2 strengths

Answer 36

✅ practical applications
- research had contributed to development of “enhanced cognitive interview” used by police
- helps to reduce errors by eliminating use of leading Qs
- khonken et al (1999) reviews 53 studies and found this procedure led to a 34% increase in correct info
✅ high internal validity - done in lab
- no extraneous variables interrupting DV
- can make statements ab cause and effect (loftus & palmer cars experiment)
- makes theory more credible

Question 37

leading questions - 2 weaknesses

Answer 37

❌ research typically conducted on students
- hard to generalise on target population
- students higher intelligence levels + younger meaning their memories more efficient
- study is limited on how far it can be used as not fully representative
❌ lacks ecological validity
- anxiety of cat crash irl would impact ability to recall info
- most wouldn’t be expecting something to go wrong, so wouldn’t be paying as much attention as the pts in study
- difficult to generalise

Question 38

post event discussion - what is it? + 3 factors?

Answer 38

when witnesses to a crime discuss the event w others their memories can become contaminated

1) retroactive interference/ media coverage
2) conformity
3) repeat interviewing

Question 39

post event discussion - retroactive interference/ media coverage

Answer 39

• witnessing a crime then hearing ab it through others or on the news etc it can contaminate your memory
• in many countries, pre-trial publicity is prohibited as it’s seen as potential risk of affecting the EW or jury
• new info may also interfere with your original memory - retroactive

Question 40

post event discussion - conformity

Answer 40

• EW wants to be correct, therefore if they hear other testimonies before them they may change their own to match it- especially if prev testimonies were done by ppl who they see to have superior knowledge
• likewise, high pressure in court, therefore the EW wants to be accepted therefore may change their testimonies in order to say what they think people want to hear
• this is why in many countries, big effort is made to keep EWs apart

Question 41

leading questions - repeat interviewing

Answer 41

• many psychologists believe repeating interviews can damage an individuals og mem of events (due to reconstructive nature of memory)
• more than once w police + again in court could create subtle differences in recall of events
• this is why police tend to record all interviews carefully, to minimise risk of reconstructive errors

Question 42

leading questions - 2 strengths

Answer 42

✅ research ev - gabbert et al 2003
- sample of 60 students + 60 older adults
- pts watched vid of girl stealing from a wallet
- then were either tested individually or in pairs, but in the pairs they had acc both watched diff perspective of the vid and only one had witnessed her steal
- pts in co-witness group discussed crime then filled out questionnaire recalling what had happened

• 71% of pts in co-witness group recalled info they hadn’t seen
• 60% said girl was guilty despite not seeing her commit crime
  ✅ practical application - justice system
• now police make sure to do interviews with EWs seperately and advise them not to discuss the event w eachother (or anyone) to avoid distorting memories
• therefore this research has helped improve the way witnesses are managed in criminal investigations

Question 43

leading questions - 1 weakness

Answer 43

❌ doesn’t take into account other factors that could affect accuracy of EW
- individual differences - older ppl less accurate than younger ppl at giving EWT
- also, all age groups better at identifying people their own age
- research studies often use students/ younger ppl to be identified and therefore some age groups may appear less accurate but isn’t true

Question 44

anxiety and EWT - Deffenbacher et al 2004

Answer 44

carried out meta-analysis of 63 studies
- increase of EWT accuracy up to high levels of anxiety
- but extreme anxiety caused recall of crime to drop significantly
- supports idea of yerkes dodson law

Question 45

anxiety and EWT - johnson and scott (1976)

Answer 45

2 CONDITIONS
1) overheard lowkey discussion in lab ab equipment failure, person then emerged from lab holding pen w grease covered hands
2) overheard heated and hostile debate between ppl in lab after sound of breaking glass and crashing chairs, person emerged holding bloody letter opener

pts then asked to recall the person
49% recalled pen man
53% recalled letter opener man