Medicine Flashcards
What did Galen have to rely on to further his knowledge?
Dissection of animals e.g. Monkeys
What were galen’s errors?
He said one kidney was higher than the other
The jaw was made from two bones fused together rather than one bone
Blood flowed between the two halves of the heart through a semi permeable membrane
What was Galen correct about?
The nervous system takes messages from the brain to the muscles
Urine was made in the kidneys
Why and how did the church promote Galen’s work in the Middle Ages?
Monks translated Galen’s books back into English. Galen suggested the body was perfectly designed as if by creator- this was similar to what the Christians believed so they promoted his work
Describe the training of doctors in roman times
There was no compulsory training. Doctors would often purchase Galen’s books and work from those
What were the causes of disease in the roman times?
- an imbalance of the humours
- god (apollo) punishing sinners
- miasma
- Varro blamed creatures too small to be seen (superstitious)
What were the treatments of disease in roman times?
- blood letting
- praying to gods
- herbal remedies
- exercise, diet to keep the body physically fit and healthy
- theory of opposites
Name some of the factors of public health during the roman times
- public fountains for drinking and washing
- bath houses for washing and exercise
- sewers carries away waste from houses, latrines and baths
- forts had their own bath houses and water supply
- strigil to scrape muck from the skin
- taxes collected to pay for public health systems
- aqueducts to carry fresh water into towns
What were some of the disadvantages of roman public health ?
Lead pipes were used which could poison some people
What were hospitals like in roman times?
Light, airy and spacious. Often 4 beds to a ward and there could be up to 60 wards
What was treatment focused on in roman hospitals ?
Making the patient better, rather than just caring for them. Treatments often focused on prioritising the health of soldiers
Who was the Paterfamilias?
The father of the family who was expected to provide and care for the family
Who were Medici?
Military nurses - skilled surgeons
How did civilisation in England fall apart after the Romans left?
- the Britons left Behring could not read the Latin books left by the romans
- there was no strong king, many kingdoms formed but none were rich enough to build public health systems or universities
- communications were dangerous and difficult, so ideas travelled slowly
What were the causes of disease in the Middle Ages/medieval times?
- 4 humours (promoted by the church)
- Miasma, although now it seemed the air was distorted by the planets (astrology)
- god gave it as punishments
- witches
- people who were culturally different e.g. Jews
- earthquakes and volcanic eruptions thought to infect the air
How did things begin to improve in 1500?
Universities were established , e.g. Paris (1110) and oxford (1167)
How was medical advancement hard in the Middle Ages/medieval times?
- the church forbade dissection and encouraged prayer and superstition instead
- church encouraged the use of galens ideas
- lack of resources to build public health systems
- social disorder and war made communication and learning hard to do
When was Salerno made?
10th century
How were lectures in the Middle Ages not very useful?
A butcher would stand and point at parts of the body while the lecturer read a text by an authoritative source
How did people in the Middle Ages/medieval times looks after themselves or recognise health was important ?
- the doctor alderotti advised people to stretch their limbs, wash their face, exercise and clean their teeth
- the popes doctor realised the importance of a good diet
- monasteries developed wash rooms, latrines with running sewers and fresh water
What happened in the Middle Ages that hadn’t happened since the roman times?
The first hospitals were built , e.g St Bartholemews in London
What was Vademecum?
‘Go with me’ - a urine chart which examined the colour smell and taste of the patients urine which helped a doctor guess what they might be suffering from
How did the training of doctors improve in the later Middle Ages?
Doctors had to train at universities and study for 7 years, then pass a verbal exam in order to become a doctor
How did doctors balance the 4 humours?
Blood letting, leeching, purging, taking hot baths, applying cool water
How did superstition increase throughout the Middle Ages?
Monarchs thought that by touching people with the kings evil (scrofula) they would be able to cure them.
People also used flagellation to show god how sorry they were for their sins.
What were leechbooks?
Documents written with recipes for hundreds of herbal remedies
Who took over the treatment for poorer classes in the medieval times?
Wise women. They treated with herbal remedies.
Women were also responsible for child birth.
What was a bezoar?
A stone found in the stomach of a goat used in herbal rememdies to treat disease
How did the church split up the role of hospitals?
- 47% of the church cared for the old or dying
- 31% cared for leapers, but couldn’t treat them
- 10% cared for the sick
What were the conditions in hospitals like during medieval times?
Cramped and dirty
Who were responsible for care in hospitals during Middle Ages / medieval times?
Nuns, monks and priests.
Describe the training of doctors in Middle Ages/ medieval times
- schools of medicine set up such as Salerno which has lectures on anatomy
- Padua university suggested doctors should visit the sick during training
- doctors still trained to use Galens teachings on 4 humours and blood letting
- new writings of Muslim doctors (rhazes) became available
What were apothecaries?
They had no medical training but still sold medicines and groceries
Why was the renaissance called the rebirth ?
Western civilisation experienced a process of profound change
How did artists revolutionise medicine?
They studied the body in more detail when painting, leading to improved knowledge on anatomy
When was the royal science society set up ?
1660 (by educated people who wished to discuss new ideas)
Why was the role of the church less significant in the renaissance period?
Due to the rise of science and experimentation. People were starting move away from he Catholic Church due to Henry VIII
When was the invention of the printing press and why was it important?
The mid 15th century - it meant that printed copies of the works of significant people could be produced for others quickly and cheaply
The renaissance period saw advances in theory but not …
Practice
Who were the people that other people turned to for medical advice in the renaissance period?
Country doctors - lower fees than town doctors but less training
Apothecaries- no medical training but sold medicine and groceries
Quacks - sold medicine for money, pulled out teeth
Wise women, local witches
What did the introduction of forceps mean in the renaissance period?
Males were now in charge of birth
In the renaissance period who began to fund hospitals?
Funded by charities, but were slow to be built and were small
Who wrote ‘the fabric of the human body’ ?
Vesalius - taught about anatomy
How did people prevent and treat disease in the renaissance period?
- houses of the infected were shut up
- nurse keepers removed themselves for 28 days after the patient died
- praying to god
- pare discovered that wounds healed better when treated with yolks and rose oil
- flaggellation
- dead buried 6 ft underground
- touchings of the kings evil
- blood letting and purging
How did the government try to improve public health in the Middle Ages?
- 1281 , the government tried to stop pigs being allowed into the streets of London
- 1347, the government tried to keep the streets cleaner
- gongfarmers were used to clean out sewers
- muck rakers were employed to clean the streets
Describe aspects of public health in the renaissance period
- large funerals banned
- householders told to collect all rubbish which was removed by rakers
- bills of mortality published to publicise course of disease
- houses made of mud and wood
- Constance’s appointed to make sure infected didn’t leave the house
- poor hygiene caused the plague to return in 1665
What did Harvey discover?
Blood circulated around the body
Veins only carry blood, rather than a mixture of blood and air
Blood is not manufactured by the liver and is not used up
When did Harvey publish ‘an anatomical account of the motion of the heart and blood in animals’ ?
1628
How long did it take for Harvey’s ideas to be accepted?
Over 40 years
Why was Harvey’s importance limited ?
His discoveries had no practical application
People or were reluctant to discard galena ideas
His ideas were not original
He couldn’t prove the existence of capillaries
When did Harvey become the fellow of th royal college of physicians ?
1607
When was Harvey placed in charge of St barts?
1609
When did Harvey become doctor to king James I?
1618
Who discovered DNA and when?
Francis crick and James Watson (1953)
What was the human genome project and when did it occur ?
1990’s - mapped all the genes in the human body
When was dolly the sheep cloned?
1997
How did WW1 advance medical understanding?
- X rays and blood transfusions were used
- it inspired gone for heroes which meant the government strived to improve public health and housing for the soldiers when they returned home
- doctors had to develop new techniques to treat infections
- soldiers given vaccinations against common dieseases
What were the limitations of WW1 involving medicine?
- Spanish flu killed millions of soldiers and showed some diseases were still not under control
- millions of men had to live with long term health problems because of the war
- the war diverted efforts and funding away from medical research
How did training of doctors change in the 20th century?
Training for doctors and nurses became compulsory
NHS means properly trained doctors and nurses were needed to treat the rich and the poor
5 year training course needed to become a doctor
Doctors could now be men and women
How were diseases treated in the 20th century ?
Adding genes to bone marrow boosts enzyme activity to help fight disease
Penicillin was an excellent antibiotic
Crick and Watson discovered the double helix structure which led to technology being used to detect genetic diseases
How did public health change in the 20th century ?
- messages and advertisements to warn about dangers of smoking
- ‘cradle to the grave’ idea
What and when was the Black report?
1980- states the huge inequalities between the health of rich and poor
What and when was the clean air act
1956- imposed skinless zones in cities and reduced smog
What and when was the new towns act?
1946- planned new towns to replace inner city slums
What did the government promise to do in 1918?
Target to build 500,000 homes by 1933
What and when was the ministry of health?
1919- set up to look after sanitation, health care and disease and training for doctors, nurses and dentists
How did hospitals and care for the sick change by the 20th century ?
- bed sheets changed and washed often
- poor people could afford to see doctors on the NHS
- technology allowed ideas to spread more rapidly
- sick people could now be treated by pills
- most medicine delivered in hospitals, only 2% of patients cared for at home (by the end of the century)
Who discovered histomine, when and what was its significance ?
Henry dale, 1910 and it allowed care and treatment for allergies
What is a magic bullet?
A chemical capable of stacking 1 specific germ in the body without damaging other parts of the body
When were the first magic bullets discovered ?
1914
What was Salvarsan 606?
Used to treat syphilis
Who discovered Salvarsan 606?
Ehrlich
Who built upon ehrlic’s work and what did they discover?
Domagk- he created the second magic bullet (prontasil)
Why couldn’t Fleming develop his ideas?
He was unable to get funding to develop his work
When was large scale production of penicillin?
1944
What were the limitations of penicillin?
- drug was found by an accident
- took a while for the drug to be produced
- Joseph lister first discovered it in 1871 but did not realise its potential
When was compulsory training for midwives ?
1902
When were free school meals provided?
1906
When were health visitors appointed to check the health of babies ?
1907
When was the old age pension introduced?
1908
When was back to back housing banned?
1909
When was the national insurance act introduced?
1911- provided help for the sick as long as the person had paid their insurance
What was the limitations of NHI?
The poorest in society could not afford to pay their weekly fee for insurance so did not get to see qualified doctors for their illnesses
When did Beveridge publish his report and what was it about?
1942- government should find ways of fighting the five ‘giant evils ‘ of ‘want , disease, ignorance, squalor and idleness’
Why were some people reluctant to beveridge’s report?
They believed the poor were poor and deserved to be and the rich shouldn’t have to pay a tax for those who did not work
Who worked towards the NHS?
Bevan- minister for health in the labour government
When did Edward Jenner discover his small pox vaccine ?
1796
When did john Snow link cholera to dirty water?
1854
When did Robert Koch underbody the anthrax germ?
1877
Who discovered that animal matter was made up of cells? When?
Schwann-1839
Who discovered the first hormone ? When?
Starling and Bayliss (1902)
What did were cure-all pills?
Unregulated pulls that often contained harmful substances like tar and cocaine. The government had to regulate these
How many people had been vaccinated by 1801 due to Jenner’s discoveries?
100,000
Why was Jenner’s discoveries not accepted at first?
The church disapproved of it.
Jenner was a country doctor rather than a city professional.
When was the anti vaccine society set up?
1802
When did vaccinations become compulsory?
1852
When was Snow proved correct ?
1883 when Koch discovers the germ which causes cholera
What were nightingale’s two books? When were they published?
Notes on hospital (1859)
Notes on nursing (1859)
How much did nightingale raise to improve the quality of nursing?
£59,000
When were working class men given the right to vote?
1866
What and when was the artisans dwellings act?
1875- knocked down unsafe houses to build new ones
When and what was the sanitary act?
1866- local authorities responsible for keeping sewers, water and streets clean
When and what was the regulation of doctors?
1858- all doctors had to be registered in order to practice medicine
