Medical Ethics Flashcards
What is the ‘Sanctity of Life’? (SOL)
Human life is intrinsically valuable because it was created by God
Who supports the Sanctity of Life?
Roman Catholics, Natural Moral Law and Humanists
(SOL) What do Roman Catholics believe?
- life is sacred as we were born in God’s image
- life begins at conception
- no human has the power to destroy life
(SOL) What does Natural Moral Law believe?
There are two of 5 primary precepts that correspond with the sanctity of life:
- self-preservation
- reproduction
(SOL) What do Humanists argue?
- Article 2: the right to preserve life
(SOL) How can Kantian ethics be interpreted to support this?
As reason is what sets us apart from other species
(SOL) What Kantian proposition supports this?
Treat humanity as an ends, never a means
Where is the quote “let us make man in our image, in our likeness” from?
Genesis
How is SOL exemplified religiously?
Through revealed law
Where is the quote “Do not murder” from?
The 10 Commandments
What is the Strong SOL?
ABSOLUTE belief that all human life is sacred, regardless of the circumstance
What is the Weak SOL?
Agape should be primarily used to determine what happens
What normative ethical theory supports WSOL?
Situation Ethics - Most loving thing
What are the criticisms of the SOL?
Jonathan Glover and R.M. Hare
What does Glover argue for?
The Quality of Life
How does Glover argue for the QOL?
Life must have e a quality to be worthwhile: memories, preferences, desires, sense of identity etc
This is what makes a person
What does Glover justify as not morally evil?
To kill someone that is without a valuable life
What does R.M. Hare discuss about QOL?
He views foetuses as “possible people” rather than “actual people” - they have the potential for life but currently do not possess any preferences or interests
What is personhood?
The status of being a person where these characteristics (autonomy, choice etc) manifest
What are Jack Mahoney’s criteria for a person?
- rationality
- sentience
- emotion
- free will
- curiosity
What is Peter Singer’s view on personhood?
They show rationality and consciousness, they are simply a life form, whereas a ‘potential’ human is a cluster of cells - link to R.M. Hare
What is the situation ethics view on personhood?
Fletcher: a person has concerns for others, communication and curiosity, self-awareness with a sense for the furutre
What is John Locke’s view on personhood?
They must be conscious, possess rational thoughts and be able to remember themself doing so in different places and times
What is ensoulment?
The placing of a soul in a human being
What/ who supports ensoulment?
Dualism, Christianity - Augustine, Aquinas
What does ensoulment mean for personhood?
Once the embryo receives a soul, it becomes a person
When did Aquinas belive ensoulment occured?
40 days after birth
What does dualism offer to ensoulment?
The soul is a separate entity from the body and survives the death of the body - Plato, Descartes
What are criticisms to ensoulment?
Not supported by any medical theory, no biological or psychological evidence
Many fertilised eggs can be naturally aborted - miscarriage - by the body, what does this mean for the soul?
What are the medical ethics laws in the Hippocratic Oath?
- Autonomy
- Beneficence
- Confidentiality
- Do not harm
- Equity
What does Glover state about the Hippocratic Oath?
The importance of the conversations between medical professionals and patients - assessing each case individually
What is significant about the Warnock Report - 1984?
- makes it clear law and morality are separate matters
- aim of law is to protect citizens, should not be personal
What is the cycle of an embryo-foetus-baby?
- conception
- implantation (6-10 days)
- ‘primitive streak’ (15 days)
- embryo begins (4 weeks)
- foetal heartbeat (5/6 weeks)
- feel movement (15 weeks)
- foetal can feel pain (17 weeks)
- survive outside womb (24 weeks)
- born (40 weeks)
What does the Warnock Report explore?
- embryos can be used for scientific experiments if the reason has more goodness to it
- there should be some protection for ‘pre-embryos’ but not as much as embryos in the womb
- embryo destroyed after 14 days ‘primitive streak’
What normative ethic principles is the Warnock Report based on?
Utilitarian
What is Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis?
A treatment which involves checking the genes/ chromosomes of the embryo for a specific condition
How is PGD done?
Through IVF as it has to be tested in a lab, embryos which are free of disease can be placed back inside the womb
Where is PGD illegal and why?
Germany due to the history with eugenics
What diseases does PGD specifically prevent?
Huntington’s disease
What do some PGD clinics offer?
The choice of the sex of the child
What are stem cells?
Pluripotent - unspecialised and can be developed into any type of cellular tissue
When were embryonic stem cells found?
1981
When were adult stem cells found?
2001
Where are adult stem cells found?
In fat tissue or bone marrow
What is the significance of stem cells found in cord blood?
They can be sued to treat cancers and genetic disorders
What are the controversies surrounding embryonic stem cells?
After 14 days the stem cells have to be destroyed - primitive streak
What is IVF?
In Vitro Fertilisation
When was IVF permitted?
1990 - human fertilisation and embryonic act
How many embryos used in IVF were thrown away?
1.7 million
What does IVF serve?
- overcome infertility
- screen against genetic disorders
- research
What was the impact of Covid 19 on IVF?
There was an additional 2 year storage added to the previous maximum of 10
What is IVM?
In Vitro Maturation
What occurs in IVM?
The removal of immature eggs from a woman and using IVF to mature them and fertilise with sperm
What is frozen egg/sperm?
In 1996 it was allowed to freeze sperm/eggs for up to 10 years
What are donors?
A donor egg or sperm is mechanically placed in the womb or fertilised through IVF
What is the law concerning donors?
2004 - someone 18 or over has the right to know the identity of their donor parent
What are 2 criticisms against the use of embryos outside the womb?
- National Catholic Reporter
-William Lane Craig
What does the National Catholic Reporter argue?
- embryonic research is the same as throwing them down the drain (destroyed)
- only 10% of frozen eggs are adopted
What does Wiliam Lane Craig argue?
- to say a fertilised embryo is not a baby is to say a baby is not a human
- a form of homicide
What is the Violin Analogy?
- argues that the rights in the situation override the other
- analogy about abortion and the right to autonomy
- if life cannot survive without medical intervention, is it worth being kept?
What is the definition of abortion?
The removal of a developing embryo/foetus before it is capable to survive independently
What are other words used about abortion?
termination, expulsion, removal of
When does an embryo become a foetus?
8 weeks
What is the Uk Law on abortion?
Permitted in 1967:
- two doctors must agree to a series of requests, e.g. the mother’s life is at risk, or the baby was born disabled etc
What is the cut off point for the procedure of an abortion?
24 weeks
What does Judith Thompson say in defence of abortion?
- a woman owns her body and therefore has prior claim to it
- the foetus only has tenants rights, the woman has ownership rights
- these rights cannot be equal
What is the situation of Abortion in the US?
1973 Roe v. Wade passed, decriminalising abortion
2022 Roe v. Wade overturned, leaving it in the hands of state representatives
How many US states have banned abortion since 2022?
14
What are the two types of assisted dying?
Assisted suicide and Euthanasisa
What are the other forms of ‘assisted dying’?
non-voluntary, voluntary, passive
What are the Laws in the UK concerning assisted suicide?
Illegal - and punishable by life imprisonment as viewed as manslaughter or murder
When was suicide decriminalised in the UK?
1961
What is palliative care?
specialised medical care for someone who is living with a severe illness
Why is dignified dying supported?
Interfaith leaders for dignity in dying - Christians and Jews who support legislation for assisted dying in certain extreme situations
Dignified death shows compassion
The right to life should be mirrored through the Right to death
What are the criticisms against assisted suicide?
- life is sacred
- created in God’s image
- doctors should not end life - this would complicate the doctor/patient relationship
