Media Representations: Gender, Sexuality and Disability

Question 1

Pluralism - Media

Answer 1

Stereotyping occurs because audiences want to see them. For example, the media make profit from selling/advertising.

Question 2

Liberal Feminists

Answer 2

See media representations as a product of the under representation of women, as chief executives, senior managers, editors and journalists in male-dominated media organizations, which encourages a male view of the world. This will change as we gain more power and equal opportunities in media organizations, enabling them to break through the glass ceiling.

Question 3

Marxist Feminists

Answer 3

See media imagery of gender as rooted in the need to make profits. Media owners and the producers of media content need to attract advertisers, and the advertisers need stereotypes (women, also of men) to promote sales of all manner - cosmetics, fashions, diet, and anti-ageing products. Radical feminists view that gender representations are driven by patriarchal ideology, but they also emphasise that this ideology is linked to social class ideology. Media-generated patriarchal imagery projects a lifestyle in which working-class women can least afford to participate. This confirms their own sense of inadequacy and reasserts the hegemony of the normality of male-dominated, middle-class and upper-class lifestyles

Question 4

Radical Feminists

Answer 4

Media representations as arising from the necessity to promote and reproduce patriarchy and patriarchal ideology. The media world, like the world in general, is a man’s world, which seeks to keep women in a narrow range of stereotyped roles, where they continue to be subordinate to men, where they conform to the beauty myth and look good to satisfy the male gaze

Question 5

The under representation of women in the media industry

Answer 5

Women are under-represented in positions of power and influence and in management in the media industry, e.g journalist, media and TV Producers

Question 6

The IWMF (International Women’s Media Foundation: 2010)

Answer 6

In the UK news companies, women were marginalized in news rooms and decision making hierarchies. Women faced a glass ceiling (and invisible barrier to progress in their careers), that was fixed at the junior professional level.

Question 7

British journalism industry stats

Answer 7

It is 94% white, 86% university-educated and 55% male - according to a survey of 700 news professionals conducted by City University London

Question 8

Mulvey - The Male Gaze

Answer 8

Men look at women as sexual objects, with images of women focusing on their physical appearance and sexuality, using camera angles which focus on their sex appeal, and suggestions of or actual nudity, often in a way to provide pleasure for men.

Question 9

Wolf - The Male Gaze

Answer 9

Discuses how women are expected to meet male conceptions of female beauty.

Question 10

The Leveson Inquiry Report

Answer 10

Looked into the culture, practices and ethics of the press. Commented that the tabloid press often failed to show ‘consistent respect for the dignity and equality of women’, and that there was a tendency to demean and sexualise women.

Question 11

Patriarchal ideology and the symbolic annihilation of women

Answer 11

Feminist writers suggest the media tend to be patriarchal, and spread this ideolog, presenting a male view of women and femininity in the interests of men.

Question 12

Tuchman

Answer 12

The representation of women as invisible or represented in a limited range of stereotyped roles and identities was described as the ‘SYMBOLIC ANNIHILATION’ of women, involving the three aspects of trivialization, omission and condemnation of women in the media.

Question 13

Women in Journalism report 2023

Answer 13

Based on 2022 data, men account for 70% of quoted sources, with a similarly high figure included as experts, 66%.
Globally, women are the subject of news stories far less than men.

Question 14

The Global Media Monitoring Project 2010

Answer 14

In a study of media on a global scale, they found about 76% of the people heard or read about in print, radio, and television news on news websites were male, compared to 24% of women.

Question 15

The Global Media Monitoring Project 2010 continued…

Answer 15

When women were interviews or heard in the news, they were represented as ordinary people, whereas men were presented as experts.
Women were 4x more likely to be identified by their family status than men (e.g mother of 2).
The world depicted in the news remains predominantly male.

Question 16

Cumberbatch et al

Answer 16

Women, specifically older, are significantly under-represented on popular TV shows compared to men.

Question 17

Martinson

Answer 17

82% of over 50s on BBC TV are men, with women over 50 only making up 5% of presenters.
Indicates women are less likely to age visibly on TV, and typically occupy a narrower range of roles, conforming to gender stereotypes.

Question 18

Wolf - stereotypes in the media

Answer 18

The WAG - Wives and girlfriends of men
Sex object - Sexually seductive, specifically in red-top tabloids
The Supermum - Happy home-maker, or part time worker. Manages family emotions.
The Angel - Good, domesticated, supports men in families.
Ball Breaker - Sexually active, strong, selfish.
The Victim - In horror films, they’re victims and men are perpetrators.

Question 19

Ferguson - Cult of Femininity

Answer 19

Teenage girls magazines prepared girls for feminized adult roles and produced a cult of femininity, including themes of being a good wife-partner. Socialises girls into these gender normatives. This is then reflected in adult women’s magazines.

Question 20

Transgressive roles - Changing representations of women

Answer 20

Suggested by sociologists like post-feminists that media representations reflect the way society has changed for women.
Since the 70/80’s, women are much more likely to be focused on their careers, and career women are now featured more positively in the media.
Lib Fems argue that these representations are yet to catch up with social change, but there has been progressive.

Question 21

McRobbie - Transgressive roles

Answer 21

Shows in her media studies that magazines show women to be more assertive/ambitious.

Question 22

Sexually Powerful - Changing representations of women

Answer 22

The idea of women as passive sex objects in the media, like in advertising, has changed.

Question 23

Gill - Sexually Powerful

Answer 23

Women are not much more likely to be shown as powerful, using their sexuality to get what they want.
Debate within feminism about whether this is a positive development as radical feminists in particular argue the patriarchy has convinced women they are control, when really men are just getting what they want.

Question 24

Independent - Changing representations of women

Answer 24

Lots of focus in the media on independence and aspiration for women and girls, in pop music there is a source for this with singers like Beyonce, Taylor Swift, and Lady Gaga, as they often sing about women’s independence/control.

Question 25

Gauntlett 2008 and Winship 1987 - Independent

Answer 25

There is a greater emphasis on young women choosing their own path in life.

Question 26

Changing representations of women AO3

Answer 26

Knight - Points out that although portrayals show women who can take care of themselves in ways that have been historically been seen as male, there is still and underlying conventional femininity being shown in the media. Media still show women conforming to the male gaze with conventional attractiveness.

Question 27

Representation of men

Answer 27

Men appear in a wider range of representations, in a public sphere and outside of the home or carrying higher status, e.g when men are more likely to be bosses or men. Male voices are more likely to be used in voice-overs in TV or radio, reinforcing them as authority figures or opinion formers.

Question 28

Connell - Hegemonic masculinity

Answer 28

There is a particular view of masculinity, of being a real man, that is dominant in Western culture. That view includes both gender hierarchy, and a hierarchy among men.

Question 29

Gilmore

Answer 29

Described the stereotyped hegemonic masculine identity as the 'provider, protector, and the impregnator' often appears, not as exclusively as the stereotypes of women. Men are presented as having interests seen as part of hegemonic masculine identity. Men's magazines reveal these things like sport, photography, computers.

Question 30

Hegemonic Masculinity

Answer 30

One concept of hegemonic masculinity has managed to remain dominant in society, partially through the media. Argued that this masculinity has been eroded in society today. Relates to an idea of there being a crisis of masculinity, where the precise role for men in society is in crisis or flux. Men do not need to do all the work of provide for their families, and instead hegemonic masculinity is replaced with toxic masculinity.

Question 31

Hegemonic Masculinity

Answer 31

All that is left are the negative aspects of hegemonic masculinity are aggression, violence, misogyny and homophobia. Boys are brought up to bottle their emotions and prove that they are physically and sexually good or better than other boys.

Question 32

Children Now - 6 male media stereotypes

Answer 32

1.) The Joker - uses laughter to avoid displaying seriousness or emotion 2.) The Jock - avoids being soft, shows aggression to demonstrate his power and strength to win 3) The Strong Silent Type - in control, acts decisively, doesn't talk about feelings or showing emotion. Successful with women. 4) The Big Shot - economically and socially successful, high social status 5) The Action Hero - strong, not silent, shows extreme aggression and violence 6) The Buffoon - Well intentioned and light-hearted, found in TV, ads, sitcoms. Hopeless at parenting or domestic matters.

Question 33

Representations of heterosexuality

Answer 33

Similarly to symbolic annihilation of women, some sociologists have pointed to the same process in relation to homosexuality. This has been either stereotyped or absent from mainstream media.

Question 34

Batchelor - Heterosexuality

Answer 34

In the media this is normal and homosexuality is always exceptional or unusual in some way.

Question 35

Representations of heterosexuality

Answer 35

People's sexual characteristics and behavior have always been a central part of the hegemonic feminine stereotype, in Britain and other Western countries, women have always been defined largely by their physical attractiveness and sexual appeal to men. Increasingly, changing social attitudes have meant men are also becoming represented as sexual objects.

Question 36

McRobbie

Answer 36

Men are beginning to face the same sort of physical scrutiny, by both women and other men, as women have always had to put with it . The beauty stakes have gone up for men, and women have taken up the position of active viewers. A new stereotype has emerged - meterosexual, these are hetersexual men who embrace their feminine side and are in touch with their emotions. Have refined tastes in clothing.

Question 37

Representations of homosexuality

Answer 37

In Brookside, a TV show in 1994, it was considered groundbreaking when it featured the first lesbian kiss on UK TV, before the watershed. Since, most TV shows have gay characters, not all stereotypical or simply present. The media are controlled by middle-class white predominantly heterosexual men, so the view of homosexuality is formed through a heterosexual media gaze.

Question 38

Gross 1991

Answer 38

Media have often symbolically annihilated gay men and lesbians by excluding them altogether, trivialized or condemned.

Question 39

Gauntlett 2008

Answer 39

Argues that although things are changing, homosexuality is still underrepresented and negatively portrayed in the media.

Question 40

Stonewall 2010

Answer 40

LGBTQ+ people appeared in less than 5% of TV shows popular with young people. Most representation came from just 4 shows: Hollyoaks, I'm a Celeb, How to Look Good Naked, and Emmerale. 50% of portrayals used stereotypes, and 36% were negative.

Question 41

Cowan and Valentine

Answer 41

On the BBC, gay people were 5x more likely to be shown negatively than positively. Mostly appeared in entertainment shows, rarely in factual programmes like documentaries or news.

Question 42

Cowan and Valentine - Stereotypes

Answer 42

Campness - Homosexuality is often associated with camp humour. Male gay TV personalities are often known for a particular type of humour. The stereotypes about gay men. Association with HIV/AIDS - In the 1980s, reporting of this focused on the gay community and further supported a stereotype of gay men being particularly promiscuous. Temporary - Homosexuality is presented as something temporary.

Question 43

Gill - The sanitization of gay sexuality

Answer 43

Mainstream media rarely represent homosexuality in a sexualised way which is done in a way that is not to challenge the heterosexual ideology.

Question 44

Gauntlett

Answer 44

Has noted that things have improved in this area and that it might be helping attitudes in society more generally, there is still stereotypical representation in this area, including presenting lesbianism for the male gaze.

Question 45

AO3 Changing perceptions

Answer 45

There is now a growing acceptance and tolerance of diversity of sexual orientations. Evidence of some change in traditional representations of masculine and feminine and gay sexuality. Media companies have woken up to the fact that the gay and lesbian consumer market is large and affluent.

Question 46

AO3 Changing perceptions

Answer 46

Pluralists - media companies are now slowly beginning to respond to what the gay and lesbian audience wants. Achieve this by advertising campaigns and the provision of media products, particularly in the new digital media and the plethora of gay and lesbian websites.

Question 47

Shakespeare

Answer 47

Disability should be seen as a social construction - a problem created by the attitudes of society and not by the state of our bodies.

Question 48

Shakespeare - Representations of disability

Answer 48

Suggests that disability is defined by societal norms that exclude those who don't fit the idea of normal. This stereotype can create a disabled identity for individuals with non-conforming bodies, especially those with physical impairments, regardless of whether the impairment affects their mobility or physical abilities.