Media Flashcards
Outline and explain the media representation of ethnicity
KEY POINT -
Many sociologists believe that media representations of ethnic minority groups are problematic because they contribute to the reinforcement of negative racist stereotypes. Media representations of ethnic minorities may be undermining the concept of a tolerant multicultural society and perpetuating social divisions based on colour, ethnicity and religion.
Evidence suggests that, despite some progress, ethnic minorities are generally under-represented or are represented in stereotyped and negative ways across a range of media content.
Neo Marxists point out representations of minority ethnic group are therefore filtered through the media gaze of a predominantly white media.
Discuss three stereotypes associated with ethnic minorities in the media (Moral panics, a threat and criminals)
Stereotypical representations
Akinti (2003) argues that television coverage of ethnic minorities over focuses on crime, AIDS in Africa and Black children’s under-achievement in schools, whilst
ignoring the culture and interests of a huge Black audience and their rich contribution to British society. Akinti claims that news about Black communities always seems to be ‘bad news’.
A number of researchers, including Van Dijk, have shown that black and Asian minority ethnic groups are often represented in limited, negative stereotypes and as scapegoats for society’s problems.
ETHNIC MINORITIES AS CRIMINALS
Black crime is the most frequent issue found in media news coverage of ethnic minorities. Van Dijk found that Black people, particularly African-Caribbeans, tend to be portrayed as criminals, especially in the tabloid press and more recently as members of organised gangs that push drugs and violently defend urban territories.
Black people committing crime are far more likely to be reported on than black people who are the victims of crime, e.g. racist attacks. This fits the news values of the media.
MORAL PANICS
Watson (2008) notes that moral panics often result from media stereotyping of Black people as potentially criminal. This effect was first brought to sociological attention by Hall’s classic study of a 1970s moral panic that was constructed around the folk devil of the ‘Black mugger’.
ETHNIC MINORITIES AS A THREAT
Ethnic minorities are often portrayed as a threat to the majority White culture. It is suggested by some media that immigrants and asylum seekers are only interested in living in Britain because they wish to take fraudulent advantage of Britain’s ‘generous’ welfare state. Poole (2000), prior to 9/11, argued that Islam has always been demonised and distorted by the Western media. It has traditionally been portrayed as a threat to Western interests. Representations of Islam have been predominantly negative and Muslims have been stereotyped as backward, extremist, fundamentalist and misogynist.
Discuss three stereotypes associated with ethnic minorities
TOKENISM
Minority ethnic viewers, especially Asian viewers, rarely see the reality of their lives or the issues that concern them reflect on TV channels. Asians also though they were stereotyped as all the same, with the cultural and religious differences between, for example, Pakistani, Bangladeshi and Indian Asian groups not being recognised in the media. They also complained about negative stereotyping, simplistic portrayals of their community, negative images of their countries of origin, and tokenism (including Asian or black actors only because programme makers thought they should to avoid accusations of discrimination).
LIMITED ROLES
Malik found African Caribbeans were less likely to be found in roles such as political commentators or experts, or in subjects of a serious nature, e.g. politics. They were also less likely to be in major roles in big budget British films. The GMG found black and Asian people were more likely to appear in supporting roles or as temporary guests than as hosts of shows
Outline and explain what popular culture is and the theoretical explanations also
Popular culture is the accumulation of cultural products that are highly commercialised, involving mass produced short lived products often of trivial content and seen by many as having no lasting artistic value and is consumed by the majority of a society’s population.
‘INFOTAINMENT’ is a term that refers to the way popular culture is expressed and is tailored to appeal to an audience that has a short attention span.
Furthermore, TABLOIDISATION refers to how the media is becoming more market-orientated and entertainment centered leading to less serious types of journalism, which limits the audiences knowledge of public affairs.
Furthermore, the lowering of journalistic standards results in reporters taking a less critical view of the sources and information they’re fed from the government and media owners. Popular culture is often attacked for diverting people away from more useful activities, for driving down cultural standards and having a harmful effect on mass audiences.
MARXISTS argue that tabloidisation of media content virtually ‘dumbs’ down society in that by not discussing politics and other public affairs at great lengths or discussing them at all (AGENDA SETTING & GATEKEEPING), it engineers people to be less critical so that the dominant ideology in society isn’t challenged. Furthermore, Marxists would argue that tabloidisation of the media is a form of social control that gives the illusion of choice between a range of dumbed down, standardised and uncritical media infotainment
STRINATI however rejects the view that there is a single mass culture and mass audience, which people passively and uncritically consume, and points to a wide diversity and choice within popular culture, which people select from and critically respond to.
POSTMODERNISTS argue that the distinction between high and popular culture has become blurred whereby the global reach of contemporary media and the mass production of goods on a world scale, makes a huge range of media and cultural products available to everyone. Postmodernists view this as being beneficial due to it being primarily responsible for the diffusing of different lifestyles and cultures around the world.
Discuss global culture and the theoretical explanations
Global culture refers to the way cultures in different countries of the world have become more alike, sharing increasingly similar consumer products and ways of life. It has been argued that globalisation has undermined national and local cultures.
Global culture has emerged as a result of the evolution of new media technologies, such as satellite TV and the internet.
Post-modernists argue that the media, and the popular culture that it generates, shape our identities and lifestyles today much more than traditional influences such as family, community, social class, gender, nation or ethnicity. Postmodernists regard the diversity of globalised media as offering the worlds population more choices in terms of their consumption patterns and lifestyle, opening up a greater global awareness and access to a diversity of cultures, bringing them more opportunities to form their identities. Postmodernist argue the media no longer reflects reality but instead actively creates it.
KELLNER (1999) argues that the media has power to globally produce images of lifestyles that increasingly become a part of everyday life and through which people form their identities and views of the world.
BAUDRILLARD argues that we now live in a media saturated society, in which images dominate and distort the way in which we see the world. This distorted view of the world is known as the hyper-reality, in which aesthetics are valued more than substance, with the media presenting what he calls simulacra - artificial make believe images which bare no relation to the real world.
Sociologists have inferred that globalisation has undermined national and local cultures, as the same products are now sold across the world, inspired and promoted by global media content and advertising. These products then become part of the ways of life of many different countries, spreading a popular cultures, which makes what were one different cultures more and more alike.
CULTURAL HOMOGENISATION is the process whereby the seperate characteristics of two or more cultures are lost or erased, and instead become blended into one uniform culture. For example Mcdonald’s is a transnational corporation that is present all over the world.
SKLAIR suggests that the media which is largely American base, spreads news, information, ideas entertainment and the popular culture to the global market. The media blurs the differences between information, entertainment and the promotion of products, and sell across world ideas, values and products associated with what is presented as the idealized, happy and satisfied consumerist lifestyle. This encourages the acceptance of the dominant ideology of Western capitalist societies.
Cultural and media imperialism refers to the suggestion that the media-led global culture-ideology of consumerism has led to Western and especially American media products and cultural values, being forced on non-Western cultures, and undermining of local cultures and cultural independence.
Most media conglomerates are now based in the US along with the likes of Microsoft, google and Facebook in a process known as cocacolanisation most people around the world have become exposed to US movies and television, fast foods and soft drinks.
It might well be argued that the media saturated global village is in fact a North American and Western one. In this sense, media imperialism has moved the world towards global cultural homogenisation - making the world’s cultures increasingly the same.
Pluralists criticise this view and argue there is no longer such things as mass or popular culture. Instead the internet, cable, satellite and digital TV and the global reach of modern media technology all offer a huge range of media products. This gives consumers across the world a wide diversity of cultural choice and increased choice makes it harder for one culture to dominate.
This view is supported by TOMLINSON who argues that globalisation does not involve direct cultural imposition from the Western world, but instead there is a hybridization or mixing of cultures. People pick n mix and draw on both Western cultures and their own local cultures. Increase choice promotes different cultural styles around the world in which a range of local and westernised global cultural influences are combined into new hybrid cultures.
Discuss divorce as a change to family patterns
Since the 1960s, the rate of divorce has increased. It has been argued that this is due to structural changes to society.
For example, CHANGES TO LAWS
Divorce was very difficult to obtain in 19th-century Britain, especially for women. Gradually, changes in the law have made divorce easier and more accessible. There have been three kinds of change in the law:
Equalising the grounds (the legal reasons) for divorce between the sexes ;
Widening the grounds for divorce;
Making divorce cheaper.
The widening of the grounds in 1971 to ‘irretrievable breakdown’ made divorce easier to obtain and produced a doubling of the divorce rate almost overnight. The introduction of legal aid for divorce cases in 1 949 lowered the cost of divorcing. Divorce rates have risen with each change in the law.
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Irrespective of changes in the law in which have given people the freedom to divorce more easily, this does not in itself explain why more people should choose to take advantage of this freedom. To explain the rise in divorce rates we must therefore look at other changes too. These include changes in public attitudes towards divorce.
Juliet MITCHELL and Jack GOODY (1997) note that an important change since the 60s has been the rapid decline in the stigma attached to divorce. As stigma declines and divorce becomes more socially acceptable and less taboo, couples become more willing to resort to divorce as a means of solving their marital problems.
In turn, the fact that divorce is now more common begins to ‘normalise’ it and reduces the stigma attached to it. Rather than being seen as shameful, today it is more likely to be regarded simply as a misfortune.
Another structural change in which has impacted divorce rates is SECULARISATION which refers to the decline in the influence of religion in society. As a result of secularisation, the traditional opposition of the churches to divorce carries less weight in society and people are less likely to be influenced by religious teachings when making decisions. For example, according to 2001 Census data, 43% of young people with no religion were cohabiting, as against only 34% of Christians, 17% of Muslims, 11% of Hindus and 10% of Sikhs.
At the same time, many churches have also begun to soften their views on divorce and divorcees, perhaps because they fear losing credibility with large sections of the public and with their own members.
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However, some sociologists challenge whether secularisation is occurring, and point to the number of first-time marriages taking place in a religious context, and the changes made by the Church of England to allow divorced people to remarry in Church. This suggests that there is still a demand for religious weddings, even amongst those who have been divorced before.
Another structural change that has impacted divorce rates is RISING EXPECTATIONS OF MARRIAGE
Functionalist sociologists such as Ronald FLETCHER (1966) argue that the higher expectations people place on marriage today are a major cause of rising divorce rates. Higher expectations make couples nowadays less willing to tolerate an unhappy marriage.
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Feminists argue that the oppression of women within the family is the main cause of marital conflict and divorce, but functionalists ignore this. Although functionalists offer an explanation of rising divorce rates, they fail to explain why it is mainly women rather than men who seek divorce.
Furthermore, the CHANGE IN WOMEN’S ROLES
has increased women’s willingness to seek divorce due to improvements in their economic position have made them less financially dependent on their husband and therefore freer to end an unsatisfactory marriage.
The availability of welfare benefits means that women no longer have to remain financially dependent on their husbands. These developments mean that women are more likely to be able to support themselves in the event of divorce.
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However, many feminists also argue that the fact that women are now wage earners as well as homemakers has itself created a new source of conflict between husbands and wives and this is leading to more divorces. Feminists argue that marriage remains patriarchal, with men benefiting from their wives’ ‘triple-shifts’ of paid work, domestic work and emotion work.
In terms of theoretical perspectives on divorce rates:
Sociologists hold opposing views as to what today’s high divorce rate tells us about the state of marriage and the family:
• The New Right see a high divorce rate as undesirable because it undermines the traditional nuclear family. Divorce creates an underclass of welfare-dependent lone mothers and leaves boys without the adult role model they need.
• Feminists disagree. They see a high divorce rate as desirable because it shows that women are breaking from the oppression of the patriarchal nuclear family.
• Postmodernists see a high divorce rate as giving individuals the freedom to choose to end a relationship when it no longer meets their needs. They see it as a cause of greater family diversity.
• Functionalists argue that a high divorce rate does not necessarily prove that marriage as a social institution is under threat. It is simply the result of people’s higher expectations of marriage today. The high rate of re-marriage demonstrates people’s continuing commitment to the idea of marriage.
Discuss the changes to marriage over the recent years
• CHANGING ATTITUDES TO MARRIAGE
There is less pressure to marry and more freedom for individuals to choose the type of relationship they want. The POSTMODERNIST David CHEAL argues that this greater choice over the type of family we create has led to an increase in family diversity.
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However, some sociologists point out that greater freedom of choice in relationships means a greater risk of instability, since these relationships are more likely to break up.
• THE DECLINE OF RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE
The decline in influence of the Church means that people no longer feel they should get married for religious reasons. People are freer to choose what type of relationship they enter into.
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However, the majority of first-time marriages take place within a religious context, which suggests that religion still has some influence over the decision to get married.
• CHANGES IN THE POSITION OF WOMEN IN SOCIETY
Many women are now financially independent from men because of better education and better career prospects. This gives them greater freedom not to marry.
The growing impact of the feminist view that marriage is an oppressive patriarchal institution may also dissuade women from marrying.
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However, changes to the position of women in society does not necessarily mean that they don’t get married, they merely put off marriage until their careers are established.
Many feminists also argue that the fact that women are now wage earners as well as homemakers has itself created a new source of conflict between husbands and wives and this is leading to more divorces. Feminists argue that marriage remains patriarchal, with men benefiting from their wives’ ‘triple-shifts’ of paid work, domestic work and emotion work
• THE DECLINE IN STIGMA ATTACHED TO THE ALTERNATIVES TO MARRIAGE
Cohabitation, remaining single and having children outside marriage are all now regarded as acceptable. In 1989 70% of respondents to the British Social Attitudes Survey believed that couples who wanted children should get married. By 2000 this had dropped to 54%.
Discuss the NEW RIGHT perspective on lone parent families
Reasons for the patterns
• The number of lone-parent families has increased due to the increase in divorce and separation and more recently, the increase in the number of never-married women having children. This is linked to the decline in stigma attached to births outside marriage.
• In the past, the death of one parent was a common cause of lone-parent families, but this is no longer very significant.
• Lone-parent families tend to be female-headed for several reasons. These include the widespread belief that women are by nature suited to an ‘expressive’ or nurturing role; the fact that divorce courts usually give custody of children to mothers and the fact that men may be less willing than women to give up work to care for children.
• Many lone-parent families are female-headed because the mothers are single by choice. They may not wish to cohabit or marry, or they may wish to limit the father’s involvement with the child. Jean Renvoize (1985) found that professional women were able to support their child without the father’s involvement.
• Equally, as Ellis Cashmore (1985) found, some working- class mothers with less earning power chose to live on welfare benefits without a partner; often because they had experienced abuse.
• Feminist ideas, and greater opportunities for women, may also have encouraged an increase in the number of never-married lone mothers.
Lone parenthood, the welfare state and poverty
• The New Right thinker Charles Murray (1984) sees the growth of lone-parent families as resulting from an overgenerous welfare state providing benefits for unmarried mothers and their children.
• Murray argues that this has created a ‘perverse incentive’; that is, it rewards irresponsible behaviour, such as having children without being able to provide for them. The welfare state creates a ‘dependency culture’ in which people assume that the state will support them and their children.
• For Murray, the solution is to abolish welfare benefits. This would reduce the dependency culture that encourages births outside marriage.
• However, critics of New Right views argue that welfare benefits are far from generous and lone-parent families are much more likely to be in poverty. Reasons for this include:
1. Lack of affordable childcare prevents lone parents from working: 60% of them are unemployed.
2. Inadequate welfare benefits.
3. Most lone parents are women, who generally earn less than men.
4. Failure of fathers to pay maintenance, especially if they have formed a second family that they have to support.
Discus the feminist perspective of the family
Feminists take a critical view of the family, arguing that it oppresses women and reproduces patriarchy. As such, they have focused on the unequal division of domestic labour and domestic violence against women. They do not regard gender inequality as natural or inevitable, but as something created by society.
MARXIST FEMINISTS • Marxist feminists suggest that the nuclear family meets the needs of capitalism for the reproduction and maintenance of class and patriarchal inequality. It benefits the powerful at the expense of the working class and women.
The Marxist feminist, Margaret Benston (1972), argues that the nuclear family provides the basic commodity required by capitalism, i.e. labour power by reproducing and rearing the future workforce at little cost to the capitalist class. It maintains the present workforce’s physical and emotional fitness through the wife’s domestic labour. Finally, women in families can be used as a reserve army of labour to be used in times of economic growth and pushed back into the home during times of economic slow-down.
AO3: However, difference feminists would criticise Marxist feminists for assuming that all women are exploited equally under capitalism. For example, lesbian and heterosexual women, black and white women, middle class and working class women have very different experiences from one another. Black feminists would argue that Marxist feminists emphasis on women’s role within capitalism ignores black and Asian women’s experience of racism which is not faced by white women.
RADICAL FEMINISM
• Radical feminists such as Kate Millett (1970) see modern societies and families as characterised by patriarchy a system of subordination and domination in which men exercise power over women and children. They argue that the family is the root of all women’s oppression and should be abolished. The only way to do this is through separatism – women must live independently of men.
Diana GITTENS refers to the concept of age patriarchy to describe adult domination of children, which may take the form of violence against both children and women. Similarly, Delphy and Leonard see the family as a patriarchal institution in which women do most of the work and men get most of the benefit. Moreover, this patriarchal ideology stresses the primacy of the mother housewife role for women and the breadwinner the family as legitimating violence against women.
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However, some would argue that this model is dated in that it fails to consider recent trends such as the feminisation of the workforce and women’s use of divorce laws. The liberal feminist Jenny Somerville also argues that separatism is unlikely to work because heterosexual attraction makes it unlikely that the conventional nuclear family will disappear.
Hakim (1995) argues that this model fails to consider that females might be exercising rational choices in choosing domestic roles.
By contrast, functionalists argue that radical feminists ignore the very real benefits that the family provides for its members, such as intimacy and mutual support.
LIBERAL
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AO3 EVALUATION OF THE FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE
• Feminist theories of the family have dated fairly badly, because they fail to account for recent economic and social changes, such as the feminisation of the economy, the educational success of young females, women’s use of divorce and many women’s rejection of domestic labour as their unique responsibility.
- Feminist also end to ignore the positive aspects of family life. Critics argue that feminists are preoccupied with the negative side of family life. They ignore the possibility that many women enjoy running a home and raising children.
- Feminists tend to assume that families are manipulated in some way by the structure of society to reproduce and reinforce patriarchy through the gendered division of labour within families. Postmodernists, for example, would argue that feminists ignore the possibility that we have some choice in creating our family relationships. In fact, the diversity of family types found today reflects the fact that we can choose our domestic set up for ourselves.
- From an interpretivist point of view, feminists tend to neglect the meanings families have for individuals and how family members interpret family relationships. For example, feminists ignore accounts of family life in which some females suggest motherhood is a fulfilling and rewarding experience.
- Difference feminists would criticise feminists for assuming that all women share similar experiences. For example, lesbian and heterosexual women, black and white women, middle class and working class women have very different experiences of the family from one another. Black feminists would argue that by solely regarding the family as a source of oppression, white feminists neglect black and Asian women’s experience of racism. Instead, black feminists view the black family positively as a source of support and resistance to racism.
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