Media 📸 Flashcards
Who owns UK media?
A statistic is often shared on social media that “five billionaires own 80% of the UK media.” (eg. Rupert Murdoch).
— These billionaires are indeed, key players, and there is no doubt that the ownership of the mainstream media in the UK is concentrated in very few hands.
What is a media mogul?
The term media mogul refers to an individual who owns a significant share of the media company, arguably providing them with significant control over that company’s media content.
— The classic example is Rupert Murdoch, who owns a number of newspaper and TV broadcasting companies around the world.
Curran (2003) points out that it has always been this way: in 1937 four men owned approximately half of all newspapers sold nationwide (including local newspapers).
What is horizontal integration?
This is where media companies will expand, often buying or merging with competitors in a similar section of the market to them.
What is media convergence?
This is where different media corporations join with other companies to offer a product or service.
— For example, Microsoft’s Windows operating system is used on Samsung Mobile phone technology. This is in contrast to Apple, that uses its own software system in its phone technology.
What are global conglomerates?
Refers to companies that consist of a lot of different business / interests that may operate on an international level. Many media companies have businesses across different countries.
What is the Traditional Marxist view on the ownership and control of media?
Traditional Marxists argue that those who own the media also control it.
— They note that the media is owned by members of the bourgeoisie (very wealthy business owners).
— They argue that these bourgeoisie owners instruct editors and journalists to put across particular messages to the audience. These messages spread the dominant ideology which seeks to justify the power and privilege of the bourgeoisie.
— Through this, the media is able to contribute towards creating a false class consciousness.
EXAMPLES:
+ Richard Desmond, former owner of the Express, regularly visited the newspaper offices making clear demand of what should be included.
+ Rupert Murdoch claims he only took large, long-term decisions (such as which party the paper would support at the general election or what their view on the European Union should be) former editions of his have suggested a much more hands-on approach.
Curran (2003) found lots of evidence of owners directly manipulating media content. In the middle of the 20th century, “press barons” were quite open about their propagandist role, and also that there have always been a lot more Conservative-supporting newspapers than those critical of that party, which reflects them serving the interests of their wealthy owners. he argues that in the later 20th centru and today, owners are, if anything, more interventionist, with Rupert Murdoch being the obvious example.
Furthermore, politician Tony Blair famously flew out to australia to meet with Rupert Murdoch and was rewarded with the support of the Sun.
Evaluation : Traditional Marxist views
CRITICISM - NEO-MARXISTS:
P: A criticism of traditional Marxist theories of the ownership and control of media comes from neo-Marxists, who point out that the bourgeoisie owners of media companies do not have time to micro-manage media content.
E: Traditional Marxists suggest that owners have a clear political view and a clear set of economic interests and ensure that their media companies project those views and disseminates an ideology that supports their interests.
E: In reality, owners can have so many business interests that they can really only control with big picture, leaving real control of media content down to editors.
L: Even the editors of large publications or programmes cannot control everything and give some autonomy to their journalists.
CRITICISM - PLURALISTS
P: A further criticism comes from pluralists who argue that proprietors are predominantly businessmen, not editors.
E: James Whale (1997) argues that “media moguls” are busy dealing with global business matters, not what story to run in a particular national newspaper. A journalist who has written extensively about media control, asks the question, why would you own a newspaper if not to try and put across your opinions? But pluralists have a clear response to that: to sell them and make lots of money.
E: If the aim of media owners is to make money, than their interest in the content of the media does not elate to ideology or politics but more to the basic question of what to sell. Owners might intervene sometimes in the media content, but they will do so because they want to ensure good sales figures.
E: Even Curran, whose research provides some evidence to support the Marxist perspective, argues that Rupert Murdoch’s interventions in his publications are more based on commercial needs and sales than being part of the ideological state apparatus.
What is the Neo-Marxist view on the ownership and control of the media?
Neo-Marxists agree with Marxists that the role of much of the media is dissemination of bourgeoisie messages and ideology. However, they argue that this is not because of the owners micro-managing the day-to-day content, but because the editors and many of the journalists come from privileged backgrounds too, and of course they were employed by the owners or company who generally choose to employ people whose opinions and values are a good fit with their own.
— — When Rupert Murdoch or Richard Desmon where choosing editors for their papers, they did not pick revolutionary socialists after all. They chose people who shared a similar worldview to themselves. As such, there is no need to micro-manage an organisation; it will put across the ideology of the owner because that ideology is shared by most of the journalists and editors.
The Glasgow University Media Group (GUMG) found that, in the 1970s, the vast majority of journalists working in the national media were white, middle-class (usually upper middle-class) men.
+ In their research into media content over many years, they have identified numerous examples of the media taking the side of the powerful in various disputes, even when the media is apparently attempting to be neutral and objective.
(GUMG, continued) The social diversity of the newsmakers has not changed as much as we think. Guardian columnist Owen Jones sparked controversy among his fellow journalists when he described the media as a privileged “closed shop”, but the statistics he quoted are quite clear.
+ 51% of top journalists in Britain are privately educated, compared with 7% of the population.
+ Only 19% of top journalists went to comprehensive schools, compared with 90% of their readers.
+ 94% are white and 55% are men.
— Jones suggested that this is getting worse rather than better, as the decline of local newspapers has removed one route that working-class people could take into a journalism career.
Neo-Marxists state that the journalists and editors are not necessarily consciously disseminating the dominant ideology, in order to create false class consciousness. Instead, the ruling-class have established what Gramsci called hegemony.
— Through this process, bourgeoisie ideology becomes viewed as common sense.
— This hegemonic approach contrasts with the traditional Marxist manipulative / instrumental approach. The GUMG also acknowledge that staying within the “common sense”, middle-of-the-road set of views is also down to commercial considerations; an attempt to offend as few viewers or readers as possible.
EVALUATION : Neo-Marxists
CRITICISM - PLURALISTS
P: James Whale (1997), a pluralist, would argue that the views and approaches contained within mainstream media is not a result of the social background of editors and journalists, but instead a result of the market demands of the audience.
E: If some positions, attitudes and values are more prevalent in the media than others, it is because those are the ones that audiences demand.
E: Furthermore, pluralists would point out that there is a diverse array of media companies and media outlets. While the most popular might present a particular worldview, there are plenty of other media outlets that present alternative worldviews.
L: This proposes the idea that parts of the audience that want to hear / read that already can do. if they appealed to more of the audience, they would take over from other organisations as the popular, well-known newspapers or channels.
CRITICISM - TRADITIONAL MARXISTS
P: Traditional Marxists would question the idea that journalists themselves necessarily share the right wing views of their owners.
E: The left-wing Labour MP, Dennis Skinner, tells a story about marching with striking miners through London and journalists at the Daily Express cheering them on from their office windows, despite the newspaper regularly printing articles attacking the miners’ union leaders and strikes.
E: This, therefore, suggests the more traditional Marxist approach - the owners force their agenda onto the journalists and therefore onto the audience - may be more accurate.
What is the Pluralist view on the ownership and control of the media?
Pluralists dismiss the idea that the media moguls and press barons control media content. They Argue that editors and journalists are professionals with ethics and integrity who would not allow themselves to be manipulated by owners in the way suggested by Marxists and Neo-Marxists.
They are not overly concerned about the concentration of media ownership; this is not a sinister ideological split, but rational economics.
— Companies want to maximise profits and minimise costs, and the formation of conglomerates, horizontal and vertical integration and globalisation of media companies facilitates this.
— They do not see such development as cultural imperialism or capitalist dominance, but as the functioning of the free market.
— They would however, be concerned, if such developments led to a complete monopoly; their theory depend on there being genuine choice for consumers.
Pluralists point out that the audience has a lot of choice in terms of what it wants to consume, particularly today with new media providing a very wide range of different viewpoints and approaches.
+ As such, it is important for media companies to offer the audience what they want in order to keep them as their customers.
+ In a free market, the companies must meet the demands of the customers. In this way, the audience has a lot of control over the media content which they consume.
This is a view that see the audience as very ACTIVE.
— While neo-Marxists would claim to place more agency on the part of the audience than traditional Marixts, pluralists would criticise both.
They argue that the audience exert real control over the media through their consumer choices.
— In this sense the media is demand led.
The market mechanism ensures audiences control content.They will not watch or buy if their needs are not catered for. Media companies must compete to satisfy these needs.
EVALUATION : Pluralists
CRITICISM - MARXIST
P: literally the same thing on the other slides ffs they all go against eachother
What is Mass Culture Theory?
‘High culture’ - the culture of the elite
‘Folk culture’ - describes “ordinary people”
Mass culture is produced by big businesses and is distributed and promoted by the mass media.
The difference between high and folk culture is seen through values, norms, belief and music, literature and even art.
— Higher social classes - sponsoring artists and musicians. Opera, fine arts etc reserved for their accessibility.
— Forms of craft, folk tales and folk music associated with lower social classes. It was produced by and for the people.
What do the right wing have to say about mass media?
> Right Wing critics ‘Elite Theorists’
Elliott and Leavis claim mass culture is a threat.
— High culture not only encompasses the finest forms of the artistic industry but superior values and morality
— Role models for the proletariat
— Mass culture dumbs down of our culture
What do the left wing have to say about mass media?
> Left wing critics
Neo-Marxist Frankfurt school developed critical theory which argued that capitalism imposes culture on the masses and creates an illusion of choice.
— Reality is that standardisation and predictable mass culture conceal a manipulative ideology in which consumerism and conformity replace consciousness.
Marcuse sees mass culture as reducing people to uncritical passive consumers
— The media is the opiate of the masses, drugging its victims with a mixture of consumerism and crass entertainment.
What role does advertising play in mass media?
Advertising encourages consumerism, greed and selfishness.
+ Traditional working class values - loyalty, solidarity and cooperation are undermined
+ Pro-capitalist values - competition and selfishness are encouraged
People become one-dimensional and consumerism becomes the meaning of life.
As people become more isolated, they are easier to control and it’s easier for the ruling class to maintain their ideological domination (hegemony).
