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LMAP > Measuring and Describing Disease > Flashcards

Measuring and Describing Disease Flashcards

1
Q

Define Endemic

A

Diseases that reside within a population

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2
Q

Define Epidemic

A

Diseases that befall a population

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3
Q

What is Epidemiology

A

How often diseases occur in different groups of people and why

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4
Q

What is an exposure?

A

The variable we are trying to associate with a change in health status

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5
Q

What are the three types of disease prevention?

A
  1. Primary
  2. Secondary
  3. Tertiary
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6
Q

What is primary prevention? Give an example.

A

Prevention of disease through controlling exposure to risk factors.
Example: Reducing salt intake in the diet to reduce risk of hypertension.

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7
Q

What is secondary prevention? Give an example.

A

Application of available measures to detect early departures from health and to introduce appropriate treatment and interventions.
Example: Prescribing antihypertensives for a patient with newly diagnosed hypertension.

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8
Q

What is tertiary prevention? Give an example.

A

Application of measures to reduce/eliminate long term impairments, minimising suffering caused by existing departures from good health and promoting adjustments to life with the condition.
Example: Stroke rehabilitation

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9
Q

What 6 words should guide us in epidemiological investigation?

A
  1. Who
  2. What
  3. When
  4. Where
  5. Why
  6. How
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10
Q

What are the 4 stages of epidemiologic transition?

A
  1. Pestilence and Famine
  2. Receding Pandemics
  3. Degenerative and Man-Made Diseases
  4. Delayed Degenerative Diseases and Emerging Infections
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11
Q

What characteristics are associated with the ‘Pestilence and Famine’ stage of epiodemiological transition?

A
  • Urbanisation
  • Constraints on food supply
  • High birth rate and high mortality
  • Life expectancy low at birth
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12
Q

Define Life Expectancy

A

A period of time at a specific stage. Example: Life expectancy at birth = average length of time you can expect to live for based on everyone in the population.

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13
Q

What are the characteristics of the ‘Receding Pandemics’ stage of epidemiologic transition?

A
  • Agricultural development improves nutrition
  • Life expectancy increases
  • Improvements in water, sanitation and hygiene
  • Vaccination emerges
  • High birth rate with reducing mortality = INCREASE IN POPULATION
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14
Q

What are the characteristics of the ‘Degenerative and Man-Made Diseases’ stage in epidemiologic transition?

A
  • Emergence of NCDs
  • Environmental and global determinants driving risk factors
  • Tech reduces need for physical labour
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15
Q

Describe the characteristics of the ‘Delayed Degenerative Diseases and Emerging Infections’ stage of epidemiologic transition.

A
  • Health tech defers morbidity
  • Emerging zoonoses presenting new threats
  • Inequalities between countries come to the forefront
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16
Q

What does the epidemiologic transition model demonstrate?

A

How populations, health and disease change over time

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17
Q

What was the role of epidemiology in the history of HIV? Give two points

A
  • Describing the constellations of signs and symptoms
  • Identifying the causative pathogen
  • Inferring the mechanisms of transmission
  • Determining risk factors
  • Designing prevention strategies
  • Evaluating efficacy of intervention
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18
Q

What is a case series?

A

A document comprising multiple case reports drawn together.

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19
Q

What are the two different types of study design?

A
  1. Observational research

2. Interventional research

20
Q

Whatvare the two different research methods?

A
  1. Qualitative research

2. Quantatative research

21
Q

What are the different types of epidemiological approach?

A
  1. Descriptive epidemiology

2. Analytic epidemiology

22
Q

What are DALYs?

A

Disability Adjusted Life Years - a measure of disease burden that combines years of life lost from ill-health, disability or premature death.

23
Q

What is the definition of ‘odds’?

A

The ratio of the probability (P) of an event to the probability of its complement (1-P)

24
Q

What are the four measures of frequency?

A
  1. Odds
  2. Prevalence
  3. Cumulative Incidence
  4. Incidence Rate
25
Q

How do we calculate odds?

A

Odds= Number of people with the disease / Number of people who don’t

26
Q

What is Prevalence?

A

The proportion of individuals in a population who have the disease or attribute of interest at a specific timepoint

27
Q

How do we calculate Prevalence?

A

Number of people with the disease / Total number of individuals in the population

28
Q

What is a weakness of using prevalence?

A
  • Provides no information of new cases of a disease

- Not useful if a disease has a short duration

29
Q

Define Cumulative Incidence

A

The proportion of the population with a new event during a given time period

30
Q

How do we calculate Cumulative Incidence?

A

Number of NEW cases during the period of interest / Number of disease-free individuals at the START of this time period

31
Q

What does a cumulative incidence of 1 (100%) mean?

A

All individuals developed the disease during the given time period

32
Q

What is a weakness of Cumulative Incidence?

A
  • Only calculated if there is a follow up of the participants in the study
  • Follow up period must be the same for all participants
33
Q

How is Incidence Rate calculated?

A

The number of new cases during the follow-up period / total person-time by disease-free individuals

34
Q

What is cumulative incidence also known as?

A

Risk

35
Q

What does Person-Time measure

A

The time participants spend in the study

36
Q

Define Incidence Rate

A

Number of NEW cases per unit of person-time

37
Q

What is a strength of using Incidence Rate?

A
  • Accounts for the time of follow-up
  • Accounts for the time when the new event occurred
  • Suitable for studies where participants enter or leave at different times
  • Can deal with loss to follow-up
38
Q

When is indirect standardisation used?

A

Where direct standardisation is not possible

39
Q

What is the use of standardisation?

A

Enables comparison of incidence and prevalence data by adjusting outputs by one or more other variables

40
Q

What is the use of Direct Standardisation

A

Gives comparable incidence e.g. 120 strokes per 100k/year

41
Q

Distribution where the proportion of older ages towards the top of the distribution are greater than those below

A

Coffin shaped distribution

42
Q

What is the distribution shape where there are fewer older people and more people in the working age population?

A

Pyramid shape

43
Q

What is Direct Standardisation?

A

Type of adjustment that allows us to compare like-for-like between populations

44
Q

How can the Standardised Mortality Ratio (SMR) be calculated?

A

Divide the observed count by the expected count

45
Q

What are the limitations of a crude rate?

A

Not adjusted for age or sex variation in the population measured

LMAP (3 decks)

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