MD Flashcards
METAPHYSICS
study of what exists and how
Philosophy of mind focuses
-mind-body problem
-problem with consciousness
-desire, belief, emotion, intention
-can minds be uploaded into machines
axiology
study of value
-ethics, social and political philosophy, philosophy of art
methods of philosophy
-argumentation (evaluating inferences, interrogating implicit assumptions)
-analyzing concepts (conceptual clarification)
Philosopher’s argument
-consists of premises (uncontroversial truths) and a conclusion
-will either analyze logic of supporting arguments or search for opposing ones
-do not conduct empirical investigations, can use pre-existing ones
-do not need studies; just good arguments
John Searle, is mind a machine?
-Premise 1: computer programs are formal (syntatic)
-Premise 2: Human minds have mental contents (semantics)
-Premise 3: syntax by itself is neither constitutive of nor sufficient for semantics
-Conclusion: Programs are neither constitutive of nor sufficient for minds
-attempts to show that idea of minds being machines is inconsistent w/ generally accepted ideas
Thought experiments
-devices of imagination
-Mary the Colour Scientist (can colour be described to someone in a black-and-white world)
Linguistic analysis
-examining how a term is used
3 Methods of conceptual clarification
-intuition and thought experiments
-linguistic analysis
-conceptual reconstruction
Conceptual Reconstruction
-forcibly reconstructing a concept
The Pioneer
-first to tackle important issues that other disciplines (e.g., science) are unable to currently address
-e.g., problem with consciousness
The Building Inspector
-Questions overlooked assumptions of research era
-philosophical investigation demonstrated inadequacies of 1950s behaviouralism and proposed new principles
The Zen Monk/Tinkerer
Focuses on arcane but important issues, typically involving conceptual puzzles
The Cartographer
-Focuses on understanding and describing how the various elements of cognitive science interact
-produce large-scale conceptual maps; e.g., Haugeland, Artificial Intelligence: The Very Idea (1985)
The Archivist
-Tracks the history and development of ideas over time
The Cheerleader
-Backs research programs, explains their promise and significance, pushes forward their developments
Logic
-Study of correct reason
-examines structure of arguments
Inductive arguments
-Premises make conclusions more likely
Deductive arguments
-If premises are true, conclusions must also be true
-high validity, difficult to confirm; can be done via mathematical methods
Historical perspective
-philosophical way of approaching an issue, based on accumulated insights/arguments of philosophical history
Early History of Psych
-Aristotle (4th century B.C.E); attempted to understand mind-body relationship
-transition from mind-body dualism to monism (18th-20th century)
Monism: Luigi Galvani (1737-1799)
-Found that severed frog leg moved when electrical current passed through
Monism: Identifying Structure of Brain
-Mid 1800s
-Camillo Golgi’s Reticular theory; neuronal tissue is continuous mesh, evidenced through novel methods of staining/imaging
-Santiago Ramon y Cahal’s Neural Doctrine: Neural system is divisible into functional subunits, expansion of tissues was from growth of dendrites
-Phineas Gage (1823-1860) demonstrated localization of function
20th Century Psych History
-Sigmund Freud’s (1856-1939) Psychodynamics: unconscious thought processes/emotional responses to childhood experiences affect later behaviour
-Watson and Skinner’s Behaviourism: Defined psychology as “scientific study of observable behaviour” without references to mental processes
20th Century Psych Surgeries
-Wilder Penfield (1891-1976): Treated severe epilepsy by destroying nerve cells
-Antonio Egas Moniz (1874-1955): Won nobel prize for lobotomy
Early Modern Era (1960s) of Psych
-renewed focus on active mental processes: cognitive revolution, pushback against behaviourism
-increased ability to record from brain (Hubel and Wiesel, direct recording of cat visual cortex)
History of Psych: Modern/contemporary
-Greater understanding/focus on idea of interactive networks
-function no longer thought to be subserved in single locations
-computation/processing is done throughout brain networks
-recognition of additional environmental factors on cognitive processes
Origin of Behaviour/Mental Processes
-Biological influences
-Psychological influences
-Social-cultural influences
Scientific method
-setting up situations to test ideas
-making careful, organized observations
-analyzing if data fits with ideas
-identification of problem, theory generation, experiment design/conduction, comparison of results to theory
Divisions of CNS: Cortical
-central fissure and Lateral/Sylvian fissure divide hemisphere into lobes
-frontal lobe: motor, complex cognitive functions
-parietal lobe: somatosensation, locating objects/self in space
-temporal: audition, visual recognition, memory
-occipital: vision
Divisions of CNS: Subcortical
-Basal Ganglia: motor control
-Hypothalamus: biologically motivated behaviours (fight, flee, feed, reproduce (4 Fs))
-brainstem: motor gating, sleep
-cerebellum: coordination, balance, speech
-thalamus: sensory gating
Ctbbh
Neurons
-basic functional component of brain
-communicates via electrochemical signals
-Carry info from senses to CNS (Afferent)
-process information
-send output to control behaviours (Efferent)
Afferent Neurons
-Carry info from senses to CNS for information processing
Efferent neurons
-Carry info from CNS to control behaviours
Electrochemical Signalling
-neuron stimulation causes brief change in electrical charge; if strong enough, produces depolarization and action potential
-depolarization produces another action potential further along axon
-as axon potential continues down axon, first section has completely recharged
-AP arrives at axon terminal»_space;> NTs are released from vesicles into synapse»>NTs act on next neuron to generate AP
Dopamine
-involved in reward, sensory processing, motor control
-too high causes hallucinations
-too low causes motor disorders
-artificial stimulation causes both
Cynical Theory of Knowledge
-knowledge is nothing more than label we apply to attitudes of elite
-underestimates our ability to resist ideas of powerful
-word ‘know’ is not reserved for experts
‘Know’ as a Verb
-among most common verbs in all 6000+ human languages (similar to ‘think’)
Elements of knowledge
-truth, confidence, justification
Routes to knowledge
-perception, memory, reasoning, testimony
-all can mislead us
Stoic Epistemology
-draws distinction between impressions and judgements
-you can have an impression (e.g., water on a desert road) without judging (accepting/rejecting) that things are really as they seem
-knowledge is wise judgement, acceptance of right impressions
-people fall short of knowledge/make mistakes when they accept poor impressions
Academic Skeptics
-there are no impressions that cannot be wrong
-knowledge is impossible
Pyrrhonian Skepticism
-Way of thinking that makes no positive claims at all
-suspend judgement on all questions
-do not have to fight against raw impulses (e.g., hunger, thirst)
PYRRHONIAN STRATEGY FOR GENERATING DOUBT
-whenever tempted to make up mind, consider the other way
-do not settle the matter (dogmatism); continue search for evidence
Criterion of Truth
-rules that help us decide which impressions are best
Sextus Empiricus Generating Doubt
-developed extensive catalogue of ways to keep from settling on any particular answer
-phrases that skeptics could say to themselves, e.g., “I determine nothing” and “Perhaps it is, perhaps it isn’t”
-brought Sextus ‘peace of mind’
HISTORY OF SKEPTICISM
-dominant philosophical figures in middle ages were firmly non-skeptical
-flourished in Indian tradition, Śrīharśa
-Resurgence in 15th century Europe; works of Sextus re-discovered
-Early 17th century, Rene Descartes (1596-1650) reported that Skepticism was vigorously alive (not actually a skeptic himself)
Descartes Thought Experiment
-powerful evil demon dedicated to deceiving you, using your senses and leading you astray each time you attempt to make an abstract judgement
-illustrates that we cannot be certain of something entirely; promotes skepticism
Responses to Skepticism
-Descartes: God exists, wouldn’t deceive us
-G.E. Moore: held up hands, shifted burden of proof to skeptic
-Bertrand Russel: simplest explanations are preferred, logic vs rationality
Responses to Skepticism
-Descartes: God exists, wouldn’t deceive us
-G.E. Moore: held up hands, shifted burden of proof to skeptic
-Bertrand Russel: simplest explanations are preferred, logic vs rationality
