MCAT UWorld Flashcards
1
Q
Catalytic efficiency
A
Kcat/Km
measure of how quickly an enzyme CATALYZES a reaction at LOW SUBSTRATE concentrations
2
Q
catalytic turnover (Kcat)
A
rate at which enzyme-bound substrate is converted into product
describes rate-limiting step of catalysis under saturating conditions of substrate
3
Q
Isoelectric point (pI)
A
pH at which protein has a net charge of zero
4
Q
ambient pH < pI
A
protein gains protons (protonates) and becomes POSITIVELY charged
- rich in high pKa amino acids
5
Q
ambient pH > pI
A
protein loses protons (deprotonates) and becomes negatively charged
- rich in low pKa amino acids
6
Q
Enantiomers
A
molecules with the same molecular formula that are mirror images because they differ in the orientation of every stereocenter
- nonsuperimposable mirror images
- same physical and chemical properties
- can be separated by column chromatography as either R or S still interact with the chiral stationary phase more strongly
7
Q
Most biologically relevant sugars adopt the __-configuration sugar
A
D-configuration
8
Q
glycosidic bond
A
bond between the anomeric carbon (the hemiacetal or hemiketal) of a carbohydrate and any other biological molecule, including proteins, lipids, nucleotides, and other carbohydrates.
9
Q
structural lipids
A
hydrolyzable glycerophospholipids and sphingolipids, nonhydrolyzable cholesterol
10
Q
lipids primarily responsible for energy storage
A
triacylglycerides (metabolized through hydrolysis and beta-oxidation)
11
Q
Fatty acid structure and membrane fluidity
A
nonpolar hydrocarbon chain + polar carboxyl head group
short tails -> fewer intermolecular interactions => INCREASED fluidity
higher # of double bonds -> decreased IM interactions => INCREASED fluidity
cis double bonds -> INCREASED fluidity because they’re less tightly packed
Short unsaturated fatty acid chains have the GREATEST fluidity
Long saturated fatty acid chains have the LOWEST fluidity
12
Q
unsaturated fatty acid chain
A
double bond (cis C=C) that creates kink or bent, which INCREASES fluidity
13
Q
pyrimidines
A
1 ring: C and T/U
T = one hydrogen bond acceptor (O) and one hydrogen bond donor (NH)
C = two hydrogen bond acceptors (O and N) and one hydrogen bond donor (NH2)
14
Q
purines
A
2 rings: A and G
A = one hydrogen bond acceptor (N) and one hydrogen bond donor (NH2)
G = one hydrogen bond acceptor (O) and two hydrogen bond donors (NH and NH2)
15
Q
Prostaglandins
A
act as autocrine and paracrine signals to produce localized inflammatory response
phospholipase enzymes -> arachidonic acid -> modified to form prostaglandins (20-carbon nonhydrolyzable lipids)
16
Q
autocrine signaling
A
act on the same cell that secreted the signal
signaling and target cells are the same or similar
17
Q
paracrine signaling
A
target cell is near the signaling cell, act on cells in local area
18
Q
juxtacrine signaling
A
signaling cell directly stimulates receptor of adjacent target cell
19
Q
endocrine signaling
A
hormones travel through the bloodstream to distant areas (e.g. organs)
20
Q
catecholamines
A
i.e. epinephrine and norepinephrine: hormones derived from tyrosine
- short-term stress
- endocrine signals
21
Q
ketone bodies
A
fuel sources produced under LOW glucose conditions
- derived from acetyl-CoA
22
Q
terpenes
A
precursors of synthesis of cholesterol and steroid hormones, derived from isoprenes
23
Q
Lineweaver-Burk plot
A
1/V0 = (Km/Vmax)*(1/[S]) + 1/Vmax
slope = Km/Vmax
y-intercept = 1/Vmax
x-intercept = -1/Km
24
Q
Cation exchange columns
A
Contain resins w/ negatively charged residues, which bind positively charged molecules (cations) -> buffer gradually changed by increasing pH and/or salt concentrations. As the pH rises, protons are removed from bound molecules, causing molecules to lose positive charge and eventually ELUTE. Similarly, cations in the salts added to the column w/ the bound cationic molecules, displacing them from the column.
To bind the column in the experiment, all the amino acids must initially have a net positive charge by fully protonating all amino acids -> by bringing pH BELOW THE LOWEST PKA of all the amino acids present.
25
pH > pKA
deprotonated form predominates
H+ removed from solution
26
pH < pKA
protonated form predominates
H+ added to solution
27
Chiral amino acids produced by living organisms are almost exclusively __-amino acids with __-configuration
L-amino acids with (S)-configuration
All amino acids EXCEPT GLYCINE are chiral
most proteinogenic L-amino acids have an S-absolute configuration at the alpha-carbon (EXCEPT Cystine w/ R-configuration)
28
Henderson-Hasselbach: pH =
pKa + log[A-]/[HA]
29
the only amino acid with (R)-configuration is
Cysteine
explanation: cysteine's side chain takes a higher priority than the carbonyl carbon
30
primary alcohol
hydrohyl group (-OH) bonded to a carbon atom that is bonded to two hydrogen atoms and another carbon
31
amino acids with alcohol in side chain
Asp, Glu, Tyr, Thr, Ser
32
amino acid degradation
amino acids are converted to alpha-keto acids by TRANSAMINATION -> amino group is transferred from an amino acid to alpha-ketoglutarate to synthesize glutamate
33
Irreversible inhibitors
- react with nucleophilic side chains -> form covalent bonds to the enzyme
- once covalently linked, inhibitor CANNOT be displaced by any amount of substrate
=> preincubation provides more time for covalent linkages to occur -> increase level of inhibition (more enzymes inactivated)
34
Reversible Inhibitors
- bind target enzymes noncovalently
- faster binding interactions than formation of covalent bonds, so additional time is NOT needed for reversible binding to occur
=> same effect whether preincubated w/ enzyme or not
35
average molecular weight of amino acids
110 Da = 0.1 kDa
1 kb = 330 amino acids
36
cofactor
some proteins can function ONLY with the help of non-amino acid groups called cofactors, small organic molecule or metal ion required for catalytic activity
37
prosthetic groups
tightly bound cofactors/coenzymes that remain in the active site between reactions
38
dissociation constant Kd
tendency of a protein-ligand complex to separate into its components
small Kd = higher affinity or tighter binding (low tendency to dissociate)
Kd = (K unbinding)/(K binding)
39
allosteric effectors
bind proteins at positions OTHER than the active site (substrate binding site) and either increase (activators) or decrease (inhibitors) their activity
40
rate of protein folding (first order rxn)
rate = Kf*[unfolded protein]
Kf = rate constant
Higher concentration of unfolded protein -> greater probability that at least some proteins will fold and the faster the process will occur
41
protein function is determined by its ____
three-dimensional FOLDED form
properly folded protein is active
42
A solution of which amino acid will NOT rotate plane polarized light
Glycine
- chiral amino acids rotate plane-polarized light
- Glycine is the only ACHIRAL amino acid (hydrogen atoms are equivalent) => polarized light is not rotated
43
chiral
molecules with at least one atom bonded to four different chemical groups (stereocenter)
44
amino acids with amino groups in side chain
- Lysine: primary amino group at the end
- Arginine: positively charged guanidino group
- Histidine: imidazole ring, which can act as a weak base depending on the pH
45
succinate dehydrogenase/complex II
- citric acid cycle
- electron transport chain
Succinate -> fumarate; generate FADH2
46
Oxidative stress
often caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS), can lead to permeabilization of the mitochondrial membranes, allowing for escape of cytochrome c from intermembrane space -> activates cascade that eventually leads to degradation of enzymes and lead to cell death
47
amino acids that contain sulfur atoms
Cys and Met
48
Michaelis-Menton equation
V0 = (Vmax*[S])/(Km+[S])
49
binding constant (Km)
substrate concentration at half of max velocity => depends on rate of ES complex formation & rate of product formation
when binding is faster than catalysis:
high Km -> E has low affinity for S (weak ES complex)
low Km -> E has high affinity for S (strong ES complex)
not affected by changes in enzyme concentration
50
multiple isoprene units
terpene
51
sterols
three six-membered rings and one five-membered ring
52
sugar with anomeric carbon at C1
aldose
linear form of sugar contains aldehyde group (hemiacetal in cyclic form)
53
sugars with anomeric carbon at C2
ketose
linear form of sugar contains a ketone (hemiketal in cyclic form)
54
glycosidic bond
links anomeric carbon of one sugar to any carbon of the other sugar or any other biomolecule
naming: configuration of anomeric carbon (alpha or beta), # of anomeric carbon of incoming monosaccharide (usually 1) and # of the linked carbon in the other sugar
55
amino acids w/ alkyl side chains
Ala, Pro, Leu, Ile, Val
branched: Leu, Ile, Val
56
primary structure of proteins
- stabilized by covalent bonds
- amino acid sequence (stabilized by peptide bonds)
57
secondary structure of proteins
- local arrangement of peptide backbone
- stabilized by hydrogen bonds btw backbone amide hydrogens and backbone carbonyl oxygens
- alpha-helices and beta-sheets
58
tertiary structure of proteins
- overall 3D shape of a single polypeptide chain
- drive by hydrophobic interactions
- further stabilized by other NONCOVALENT interactions (H bonds, electrostatic interactions, etc) involving side chains of amino acids within single polypeptide
- can further be stabilized by ADDITION OF covalent DISULFIDE BONDS
59
quaternary structure of proteins
result of intermolecular interactions between multiple polypeptides (multimeric) which come together to form a single functional protein
60
Disulfide bonds to stabilize tertiary structure of protein
form when thiol (-SH) group of a cysteine residue reacts with another nearby cysteine
- resulting covalent linkage (-S-S-) is a disulfide bond and strongly links regions of proteins together
61
hydrolysis is thermodynamically ____, but kinetically ____ w/o an enzyme
thermodynamically favorable; kinetically unfavorable due to large Ea
62
groupthink
when a desire for group cohesion or consensus results in poor decision-making
- in an effort to get along and reach consensus, group members do NOT critically evaluate all available information
- group harmony at the expense of rational decision-making
63
social capital
a person's networks of people that can be converted into economic gain
64
top-down processing
- conceptually-driven
- perception guided by information, beliefs, or ideas already stored in brain
- mental associations, context, motivation
- "big picture" - general to specific details
- endogenous: require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it
65
bottom-up processing
- stimulus-driven
- perception guided by incoming data (e.g. sensory input)
66
absolute threshold
intensity value at which individual is able to detect the stimulus 50% of the time
67
difference threshold
Just Noticeable Difference (aka Weber's Law)
- smallest difference between two stimuli that a person can detect 50% of the time
68
signal detection theory
quantifies how judgments or decisions are made under uncertain conditions amid "noise"
- signal correctly perceived as present => correct detection = "hit"
- signal not detected even though it is present => false negative = "miss"
- signal absent but a perception is erroneously reported => false positive
- signal is accurately judged absent => correct rejection
69
confidence intervals overlap
difference MAY or MAY NOT be statistically significant
70
nonoverlapping confidence intervals
ALWAYS imply statistically significant difference between groups
71
Weber's law
k = delta I/I
delta I = just noticeable difference
I = original stimulus intensity
72
operant conditioning
reinforcement to encourage certain behaviors and punishment to discourage unwanted behaviors
1. Increase motivational state: deprive of desirable stimulus
2. Shaping: reward successive approximations of desirable behavior
3. Continuous reinforcement: reward desirable behavior every time it occurs
- continuous reinforcement to train animals to perform NEW behaviors
- partial reinforcement to MAINTAIN behaviors (more resistant to extinction)
73
role strain
competing expectations within a SINGLE role create tension
74
role conflict
competing expectations for TWO or MORE roles create tension
75
role exit
individual disengages from a social role, often replacing it with a new social role
76
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
model by Hans Selye describing how the body reacts to stress - the stress response always follows a similar course, regardless of the exact nature of the stressor
3 stages of stress response:
- Alarm: first few minutes, decreased resistance to stress as the sympathetic nervous system prepares the body to act
- Resistance: hours/days/months, increased resistance to stress - body attempts to resist the stressor and establish a new equilibrium, hyper-adrenal function
- Exhaustion: decreased resistance to stress - prolonged stress produces arousal w/ depleted energy, making body more vulnerable to negative health effects - susceptible to illness
77
internal validity
causality
if a change in independent variable is really causing a change in the dependent variable
78
external validity
generalizability (to other situations or people/population)
if the observed relationship applies outside the experiment to another situation or other people
79
appraisal theory
one's appraisal (evaluation) of a stimulus determines one's emotional response
primary appraisal: individual classifies stimulus as threatening, positive, or irrelevant
secondary appraisal: individual evaluates whether their resources/abilities are sufficient to cope w/ the stressor
80
elaboration likelihood model
when the receiver is uninterested in the message, shallow processing of info and superficial factors might be more persuasive
=> temporary attitude or behavior change
when the receiver is highly interested in the message, central deep processing of the message
=> lasting attitude or behavior change
characteristics that impact how we are persuaded for or against a message: message itself, source, target (listener)
81
Hawthorne effect
research subjects act differently as a result of knowing that they are being observed
82
symbolic interactionism
- micro-level - small interactions between individuals, society = buildup of everyday typical interactions
- subjective meanings people believe to be true: humans ascribe meanings to things and act towards those things based on ascribed meanings
- people communicate using symbols
- meaning & value attached to symbols -> individual interactions based on these symbols
- Cooley, Herbert Mead
Blumer:
1. we act based on MEANING we've given something
2. different people assign DIFFERENT meanings to things
3. the meaning we give somethings ISN'T PERMANENT
83
dramaturgical perspective
individuals behave as actors, behaving in front of others in ways that align with social norms
84
structural functionalism
- macro-level
- all aspects of society work together to maintain DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM (societal balance)
- society = an organism
- Durkheim, Parsons
- manifest (intended) and latent (unintended) functions
- in large societies, individuals become interdependent on each other as everyone is specialized in different roles
- social change threatens mutual dependence of people in that society - force others to adapt to maintain stable state society
85
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
Pre-conventional: direct consequences to the individual
1. obedience & punishment: avoid punishment by authority
2. self-interest: expect equal exchange to further own self-interest, individualism and exchange, recognize different individuals have different viewpoint
Conventional: society's norms & values
3. conformity & interpersonal accord: want to be good to secure approval of others
4. law & order: obey laws of society
Post-conventional: own ethical principles
5. social contract: maximizing benefit for largest # of people, recognize that even though rules exist for greater good there are times this law works against interest of particular people
6. universal ethical principle: following own ethical principle of justice above all else
86
Identity development theory by James Marcia
Identity diffusion: low commitment and low exploration
Identity foreclosure: high commitment and low exploration
Identity moratorium: low commitment and high exploration
Identity achievement: high commitment and high exploration
87
sampling bias
sample does not represent population
88
social desirability bias
tendency of research participants to overemphasize positive behaviors while downplaying or underreporting undesirable behaviors
- respond to questions in a way that makes them look better in the eyes of the experimenter
89
confirmation bias
tendency, when one has already formed a conclusion, to look for supporting information, ignoring undermining information
90
hindsight bias
tendency to perceive an event as being likely AFTER it has occurred, even if it was unlikely
91
language and brain
LEFT hemisphere
Broca's area (prefrontal cortex): speech production
Wernicke's area (posterior temporal cortex): language comprehension
92
how presence of others affect behavior
- conformity: individual's thoughts or actions align with group norms due to IMPLICIT influence of others
- peer pressure: influence peers exert on other peers to conform to group norms, individuals close in age and sharing certain traits, GREATER RISK OF REJECTION if one fails to conform compared to conformity
- compliance: individual publicly goes along w/ the group but PRIVATELY MAINTAINS HIS OR HER OWN STANCE
- obedience: individuals behave according to requests or demands of an authority figure
93
conformity
Normative: individual conforms to FIT IN or AVOID REJECTION by others
Informational: individual conforms because they DON'T KNOW WHAT TO DO and believe others do
public conformity: outwardly changing but inside maintain core beliefs
private conformity: change behaviors to align with group
94
reliability
consistency of an experiment or measure, produce similar results every time
- replicability
95
validity
internal: extent to which experiment or measure is accurate
- accuracy
external: generalizability
96
group polarization
average attitude or proposed course of action of group becomes MORE EXTREME after group discussion - amplify ORIGINAL opinion of group members
arguments made tend to favor popular view - confirmation bias
97
impression management
trying to influence how one is perceived by others
98
types of groups
- in-group: individual identifies and belongs to this group
- out-group: individual does NOT identify or belong to this group
- reference group: comparison group to which an individual compares self, MAY OR MAY NOT belong to this group
- primary group: group of individuals who are emotionally close, smaller size, high degree of interaction
- secondary group: group of individuals who come together to accomplish something, larger size, more impersonal
- status group: based on noneconomic characteristics like prestige, tend to be defined through social institutions
99
looking-glass self
how our interpretation of how others perceive us impact our self-concept
100
life course approach to illness
how psychological, biological, and sociocultural factors across a lifetime have a cumulative effect on health outcomes
101
sick role theory
- functionalist
- how disruption to typical social activity caused by illness is minimized through the sick role, which legitimizes illness as socially acceptable behavior
- rights: exempt from playing other social roles while sick and excused from fulfilling normal responsibilities
- obligations: make every reasonable effort to get well as soon as possible, including seeking medical help and cooperating with medical professionals
102
illness experience
- symbolic interactionist
- how people incorporate and make sense of illness as part of their self-identity and daily routines
103
social constructionism
- macro or micro
- social reality is created through interpersonal interactions; social actors determine what is real
- result in shared meanings and expected roles/behaviors
- knowledge about world is based on interactions
- weak: social constructs are dependent on brute facts (most basic and fundamental)
- strong: whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits - all knowledge is social construct and no brute facts
104
three components of attitude
ABC's
Affective, Behavioral, Cognitive
105
expectancy theory of motivation
individuals are motivated to act based on the expected outcomes of their behavior
- Expectancy: belief that one WILL BE ABLE TO ACHIEVE the desired outcome
- Instrumentality: belief that one has CONTROL over the desired outcome
- Valence: VALUE placed on the desired outcome
106
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
fulfilled from bottom to top:
1. physiological
2. safety
3. love and belongingness
4. self-esteem
5. self-actualization
107
drive reduction theory
motivation is a result of a disruption of homeostasis, which generates a biological NEED --> generates a DRIVE to fulfill that need --> prompts ACTION (goal-directed behavior)
108
learned helplessness
feelings of extreme powerlessness along with a perceived lack of control
external locus of control (feel outcome is due to luck or fate, out of own control)
+
low self-efficacy (belief about own competence/ability)
109
incomplete dominance
both alleles expressed phenotypically
- heterozygote w/ combined traits (INTERMEDIATE PHENOTYPE)
example: homozygous red flowers (RR) x homozygous white flowers (WW) produce heterozygous offspring (RW) that are pink
110
codominance
both phenotypes appear in heterozygotes
- expression of two different allele products
111
electromagnetic waves
transverse; perpendicular to each other
c = lambda*f
E = hf = hc/lambda
112
Intensity
Power/Area = (Energy/time)/Area
proportional to energy of each emitted particle and # of particles emitted per time
113
index of refraction (refractive index) n
n = c/v
114
visible light spectrum
400nm (purple) - 750nm (red)
115
fatty acid synthesis
produces long hydrocarbon chains linked to a carboxylic acid
- facilitated by fatty acid synthase -> links 2-carbon units (acetyl-CoA) to each other
- resulting fatty acid contains 2n + 2 carbons
116
DNA coding strand
- complements noncoding DNA strand
- same sequence & directionality as newly synthesized mRNA transcript (only replace T w/ U)
117
noncoding/template DNA strand
- provides genetic info for transcription
- base pairing w/ newly synthesized mRNA transcript -> complementary, reverse directionality
118
splice donor site
5' end of intron, next to exon
119
splice acceptor site
3' end of intron, next to exon
120
histone acetylation
promotes gene transcription by loosening heterochromatin (closed) to euchromatin (open) because salt bridges between charged AAs and phosphate groups are disrupted
- histones have positive Lys groups -> negative acetyl groups neutralize them and reduce supercoiling
- disrupt salt bridges between positive Lysine residues and negatively charged phosphate groups
histone deactylation downregulates gene expression by removing acetyl groups from histones -> revert euchromatin back to heterochromatin
121
northern blots
- band intensity = quantifies mRNA expression
- band location = size (smaller molecules appear lower than larger ones)
122
Lewis acid
electron acceptor
- metal cations w/ higher positive charge -> STRONGER Lewis acid
123
epimer
diastereomer that differ in spatial orientation at only ONE stereocenter
ex: D-mannose & D-glucose
124
Lewis base
electron pair donor
125
stereoisomers
same molecular formula and atom connectivity but bonds oriented differently in space
- one or more stereocenters/chiral centers
126
diastereomers
type of stereoisomer where at least one (but NOT ALL) of the stereocenters differ in orientation
127
R/S configuration
Highest priority = substituent atom w/ greatest atomic number
When lowest-priority group is pointed behind the plane (dashed), a clockwise arrangement of groups gives an R configuration and a counterclockwise arrangement gives an S configuration.
When lowest-priority group is pointed in front of the plane (wedged), a clockwise arrangement of groups gives an S configuration and a counterclockwise arrangement gives an R configuration.
128
Sn2 reaction
concerted substitution reaction, ALWAYS INVERTS STEREOCHEMISTRY (if electrophile is chiral center)
- stereospecific
- nucleophile attacks an electrophile on the opposite side of the leaving group (backside attack) -> takes place in a single concerted reaction
- if the electrophilic center is a chiral center, stereochemistry of chiral center is inverted
=> Walden inversion occurs ONLY at carbon that is attacked by the nucleophile
- occur the fastest for less sterically hindered carbon electrophiles
- polar aprotic solvents contain polar functional groups that lack ability to hydrogen bond and are often used to promote SN2 reactions
129
specific rotation
direction and magnitude a chiral molecule rotates plane-polarized light
clockwise = +
counterclockwise = -
specific rotation = observed rotation/(concentration*path length)
130
TLC
- monitor reaction progress when starting material & products have different polarities
- rate at which each compound travels up TLC plate depends on strength of competing intermolecular interactions between compound & the stationary & the mobile phases
- weakest interactions migrate the fastest and farthest up TLC plate
- UV light can be used to visualize results from TLC if components from rxn mixture can absorb UV light: UV light carries a large amount of energy that can excite the electrons of UV chromophores to a higher energy state
-> UV chromophores: double and triple bonds, carbonyls, nitroso groups, alkyl halides, conjugated systems
131
behaviorist theory
role of environment in shaping human behavior
- reinforcement and punishment
132
psychoanalytic theory: major defense mechanisms
- denial: refusing or unable to recognize unacceptable thoughts/behaviors
- projection: attributing unacceptable thoughts/behaviors to someone or something else
- rationalization: making excuses for unacceptable thoughts/behaviors
- regression: behaving as if much younger to avoid unacceptable thoughts/behaviors
- repression: blocking unacceptable thoughts/behaviors from consciousness
- displacement: taking out unacceptable thoughts/behaviors on a safe target
- sublimation: transforming unacceptable thoughts/behaviors into acceptable thoughts/behaviors
- reaction formation: behaving in manner opposite unacceptable thoughts/behaviors, minizing uncomfortable thoughts or emotions by overemphasizing their opposite
133
bicarbonate buffer system
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) <=> H2CO3 (aq) <=> H+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq)
Higher blood [CO2] increases blood acidity and pH decreases due to increased H+ production ==> increased respiration to blow off more CO2 (Le Chatelier)
HCO3- reabsorbed and H+ secreted
134
regulation of blodo pH
nephrons: blood initially filtered through glomerular capillaries
-> further reabsorption and secretion of solutions from this filtrate
proximal tubule: bicarbonate reabsorbed, H+ and waste products secreted into the filtrate
loop of henle:
- descending limb: reabsorbs water via osmosis
- ascending limb: transports filtrate out of the medulla and back to the renal cortex, reabsorbs Na+ and K+
distal tubule: salts, H2O, and HCO3- are reabsorbed, K+ and H+ are secreted
collecting duct: H2O and salts reabsorbed, K+ secreted
135
ideal gas laws
PV = nRT
PV = NKT (N = avogadro)
Kinetic Energy = (3/2)*K*T
136
glucose irreversible steps and gluconeogenesis steps that bypass these reactions
Glycolysis: Glucose -> glucose-6-phosphate (hexokinase)
Gluconeogenesis: Glucose-6-phosphate -> glucose (glucose-6-phosphatase)
Glycolysis: Fructose-6-phosphate -> fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (PFK1)
Gluconeogenesis: Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate -> Fructose-6-phosphate (fructose-1,6-bisphophatase)
Glycolysis: Phosphoenolpyruvate -> pyruvate (pyruvate kinase)
Gluconeogenesis: Pyruvate -> oxaloacetate (pyruvate carboxylase)
Gluconeogenesis: Oxaloacetate -> phosphoenolpyruvate (PEPCK)
137
hybrid inviability
mating between different species -> improper segregation of sister chromatids during mitosis (chromosomal disjunction) -> no viable embryo
138
immunity
innate and adaptive
adaptive:
- cell-mediated
- humoral -> B lymphocytes secrete antibodies
- T-lymphocyes: helper (produce cytokines that activate other cells of the immune system) and cytotoxic (cause apoptosis)
139
Natural killer and cytotoxic T-cells
release toxins that induce apoptosis in nearby infected cells
140
activation of B lymphocytes by helper T cells
1. pathogen binds B lymphocyte receptor -> endocytized and presented on MHC II (bind antigen fragments)
MHC-antigen transported to surface of B lymphocyte and integrated into cell membrane
2. helper T cell binds foreign antigen and releases cytokines that activate the B lymphocyte
3. activated B lymphocyte divides into many clones that differentiate into plasma cells (secrete antibodies that can travel via bloodstream and mark foreign antigens for destruction) or memory cells
short-lived plasma cells: secrete antibodies during immediate immune response
long-lived memory cells: remain in lymphoid tissues for long time, recognize antigen more rapidly during future infection
141
lac operon
glucose-rich media:
glucose = preferred carbohydrate fuel of most organisms so when glucose is present in abundance, lactose metabolism is not necessary
- lactose unbound to lac repressor
- lac repressor (encoded by lacI) active and binds operon => inhibits transcription of lac genes
-> prevents unnecessary consumption of ATP
lactose-rich media:
lactose binds lac repressor and inhibits its interaction w/ the operon, allowing lac genes to be transcribed
142
stress response system
Stress -> hypothalamus -> CRH -> pituitary gland -> ACTH -> adrenal cortex -> cortisol
HPA axis mediated by negative feedback
also stress -> hypothalamus -> nerve signal -> adrenal medulla -> epinephrine and norepinephrine
(+ stress induces glucagon secretion -> stress can exacerbate diabetes)
143
diastolic blood pressure
- heart muscles relax and ventricles fill with blood (returning to the heart via veins)
- arterial pressure decreases
- MINIMUM ARTERIAL PRESSURE due to heart relaxation
144
systolic blood pressure
- heart muscles contract and pump blood into arteries
- arterial pressure increases
- MAXIMUM ARTERIAL PRESSURE due to ventricular contraction
145
Mean arterial pressure
cardiac output*vascular resistance
146
large intestine
- cecum
- colon -> reabsorb electrolytes and H2O
- rectum -> store feces
147
Meiosis
2n -> 4*n
Meiosis I:
prophase I: nuclear envelope of diploid parental cell disintegrates and homologous chromosomes pair up
metaphase I: these chromosomes pairs align at the metaphase plate
anaphase I: chromosome pairs are separated to opposite poles of the cell by meiotic spindle
telophase I: nuclear envelope reforms
=> two haploid daughter cells
Meiosis II: each daughter cell undergoes process similar to meiosis I, except that it is sister chromatids
=> total of four haploid daughter cells
unlike mitosis:
- result in haploid cells
- four daughter cells that differ from original parent cell
- synapsis of homologous chromosomes
- two rounds of cell division
148
mRNA
translated into protein by ribosomes
149
rRNA (ribosomal)
associates w/ specific proteins to form ribosomes
150
tRNA
pairs mRNA w/ specific amino acids during translation
151
snRNA (small nuclear)
associates w/ specific proteins to form small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs) -> building block of spliceosomes
152
siRNA (small interfering)
- RNA interference
- binds complementary mRNA and signals for its degradation
- decrease translation
153
miRNA (micro)
- RNA interference
- binds target complementary sequence on mRNA molecule to silence gene expression (by promoting endonuclease activation + cleavage of target RNA or prevent target mRNA from binding to ribosomes and block translation)
154
oncogene
mutated or over-expressed gene induces uncontrolled cell growth by promoting cell cycle progression or inhibition of apoptosis
155
tumor suppressor gene
inhibits cell cycle progression; regulate DNA repair by repressing or pausing cell cycle and inducing apoptosis if cell repair fails
- lower levels in cancer cells
156
Hardy-Weinberg equation(s)
p + q = 1
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
p = frequency of dominant allele
q = frequency of recessive allele
157
heterochromatin
- transcriptionally inactive
- low levels of histone acetylation
- high levels of DNA methylation
158
euchromatin
- transcriptionally active
- high levels of histone acetylation
- low levels of DNA methylation
159
pancreas hormones
paracrine (to neighboring cells), exocrine (secrete substances through duct and onto epithelial surface), and endocrine (into bloodstream)
endocrine pancreas => islets of Langerhans:
- alpha cells: produce glucagon (-> inhibit beta cells)
- beta cells: produce insulin (-> inhibits alpha cells)
- delta cells: produce somatostatin -> inhibitory effect on digestive function, suppress insulin & glucagon release
exocrine -> secretes pancreatic juices containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate
160
peptide hormones
ex: insulin, glucagon
- composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, made in rough ER
- water-soluble (hydrophilic)
- act as first messengers and must bind receptor on plasma membrane to induce signaling cascade via activation of intracellular secondary messengers
161
steroid hormones
- lipid hormones derived from cholesterol
- made in smooth ER
- fat-soluble (hydrophobic) => must be bound to carrier protein in bloodstream
- can diffuse through lipid bilayer & bind receptor in cytoplasm or nucleus
- first messengers
162
tyrosine derivatives
- derived from tyrosine
- function similarly to either steroid hormones (thyroid hormones T3 and T4) OR peptide hormones (catecholamines)
163
high blood glucose levels stimulate ____
insulin release
-> insulin decreases blood glucose concentration by inhibiting glucagon release, promoting glucose uptake by insulin-responsive tissues, and decreasing hepatic gluconeogenesis
+ insulin also stimulates glycogen synthesis (liver, muscle), triglyceride synthesis, and protein synthesis
164
low blood glucose levels stimulate ____
glucagon release
-> glucagon increases blood glucose concentration by promoting production of gluconeogenic substrates and by stimulating glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis), and hepatic gluconeogenesis
+ limit glucose use by insulin-sensitive tissues & decrease glucose uptake by peripheral tissues
+ low blood glucose promotes release of epinephrine => stimulates glucagon release
165
G protein activation of adenylate cyclase
When ligand binds receptor, GDP bound to G protein (alpha, beta, and gamma subunits) is phosphorylated to GTP, which activates alpha-subunit of G protein
-> Alpha-subunit and GTP complex bind to adenylate cyclase
-> ATP is transformed to cAMP
-> protein kinase A activation
-> physiologic effects
166
short-term stress response
"fight-or-flight" response:
Stress -> nerve signal -> adrenal medulla -> releases epinephrine and norepinephrine
- increased heart rate and cardiac muscle contractibility -> increased blood flow to brain, lungs, skeletal muscles
- dilation of airways (bronchioles) -> increased respiratory function and oxygen delivery to tissues
- redirection of blood throughout body via vasoconstriction (for organs of nonessential functions) and vasodilation (for organs essential for immediate survival) -> decrease urinary output & digestive activities
- glycogenolysis -> glucose release into bloodstream
- increased metabolic rate
- decrease digestive activities and urine output
167
electron flow in Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
low reduction potential (lower affinity for electron) to higher reduction potential
168
racemic mixture
amino acids that are part L- and D-amino acids
169
charge of amino acid sequence ends at pH 7
N-terminus = +1
C-terminus = -1
170
cooperativity
if binding of one ligand influences binding of subsequent ligands
171
positive cooperativity
when binding at one site makes binding of subsequent ligands easier
- Hill coefficient > 1
- sigmoidal curve
low [L] -> low affinity, shallow curve
as [L] increases and more ligands are added, affinity increases and curve steepens (eventually flattens as protein is saturated)
172
negative cooperativity
when binding at one site makes binding of subsequent ligands harder
- Hill coefficient between 0 and 1
- hyperbolic curve
173
phospholipids
terminal group - phosphate group - glycerol group - fatty acid tails
when energy is needed, ester linkages are hydrolyzed to release free fatty acids and free glycerol (saponification)
174
transamination
amino acid --> alpha-keto acid -> CO2
release glutamate (amino group) - amino group is exchanged for carbonyl group
-> glutamate can feed into urea cycle to produce urea
alpha-keto acid is carbon skeleton of amino acids
175
fatty acid oxidation produces
acetyl-CoA, FADH2, NADH
=> used to synthesize ATP
176
mitochondrial ATP synthesis happens in
complex V of ETC
ATP synthase
- substrate-level phosphorylation in krebs cycle -> GTP and ATP
- oxidative phosphorylation -> ATP
177
lipoic acid
required (oxidized) by pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
pyruvate --> acetyl-CoA
178
beta-oxidation
medium-chain fatty acids -> acetyl-CoA
179
oxioreductase enzymes
catalyze redox reactions using cofactors as either reducing agents or oxidizing agents
- catalyze reduction of ketones to alcohols
- usually require NAD(P)H or FADH2
180
transferase
transfers functional groups from one molecule to another without changing the oxidation state of either substrate
e.g. kinases
181
hydrolase
catalyzes hydrolysis reactions -> break functional groups apart by adding H2O
e.g. digestive enzymes
182
lyase
either breaks a single substrate into two products OR joins two substrates to make a single product
- without use of water, redox cofactors, or separate high-energy molecule
183
isomerase
rearranges covalent bonds within one SINGLE molecule
- functional group transfers, stereochemical rearrangement, cis-trans rearrangement, and conformational rotation of macromolecules
184
ligase
- uses hydrolysis of a separate, high-energy molecule (e.g. ATP) to provide free energy change to join two substrates together
- also have ATP hydrolase activity
185
glycolysis ATP
net = 2 ATP molecules produced
energy investment phase: 2 ATP consumed
energy payoff phase: 4 ATP produced
186
liver releases stores _____ in response to fasting-induced glucagon release
glucose
187
feedback inhibition of fructose/hexokinase regulates ATP use for phosphorylation
hexokinase
188
fructose in muscle vs liver cells
muscle:
- 1 molecule of fructose -> 2 ATP phosphorylated
-> 2*glyceraldehyde-3-P -> glycolysis
liver: 1 molecule of fructose phosphorylated by hexokinase -> glycolysis as fructose-6-P
same net glycolytic ATP production from fructose in liver and muscle - investment phase consumes 2 ATP for both cells
net APT production per hexose is the same regardless of metabolic mechanism
189
cytosolic NADPH for dNTP synthesis is produced by
pentose phosphate pathway
NADPH = reductive agentno
190
proteins w/ ubiquitin tags are typically targeted to the ___ for destruction
proteosome
links C-terminus to a lys side chain
191
alpha-configuration
anomeric carbon trans to C6 group w/ respect to the ring
192
beta-configuration
anomeric carbon cis to C6 group w/ respect to the ring
193
turning O2 into water requires ___ electrons per oxygen molecule in ETC
four electrons
ETC: transfer of high-energy electrons from reduced energy carriers to lower-energy acceptors
NADH carries two electrons in the form of H- that enter complex I to reduce UQ to UQH2
-> UQH2 travels to complex III -> electrons from single UQH2 can reduce up to two cyt c molecules
-> cyt c travel to complex IV where they deposit electrons one by one to oxygen, progressively reducing it to water once 4 electrons have been deposited
NADH is a two-electron carrier so minimum of two NADH molecules needed to pass their electrons through ETC to fully reduce O2
electrons needed to reduce O2 are provided by reduced cyt c, which is converted to oxidized cyt c in the reaction catalyzed by complex IV
194
fasting
- liver maintains blood glucose levels by glycogen stores (glycogenolysis)
- glucose consumption & storage are downregulated
- gluconeogenesis is upregulated
- decreased insulin uptake and degradation
early stages of fasting: liver synthesizes glucose by glycogenolysis
prolonged fasting: glycogen stores are depleted so upregulate gluconeogenesis
195
electron always flow from
anode to cathode
anode (oxidation) = dilute
cathode (reduction) = concentrated
196
when battery is charging
electric current supplied from an external source drives a nonspontaneous redox reaction => electrolytic cell
197
when battery is discharging
a spontaneous redox reaction occurs, producing an electric current => galvanic cell
198
anode
oxidation
negative ions (anions) migrate toward anode to counterbalance the increased positive charge
199
cathode
reduction
positive ions (cations) migrate toward cathode to counterbalance the increased negative charge
200
electrolytic cell
G > 0
E < 0
electric current from an external source (e.g. battery) is supplied to drive the rxn
cathode becomes negatively charged
anode become positively charged
201
galvanic cell
G < 0
E > 0
202
E cell
E red, cathode - E red, anode
203
faraday
charge in 1 mole of electron
1 mol e-/1 Faraday
204
higher reduction potential
lower oxidation potential
higher affinity for electron
weaker reducing agent (metal less likely to be oxidized)
more positive E
205
lower reduction potential
higher oxidation potential
lower affinity for electron
stronger reducing agent (metal more likely to be oxidized)
more negative E
206
blue litmus paper
pH solution < 7: red
pH solution > 7: remain blue
converse for red litmus paper
207
Van der Waals
noncovalent: do not share electrons, but have dipoles w/ opposite partial charges
- dipole-dipole (btw two permanent dipoles)
- dipole-induced dipole
- London dispersion forces (btw two induced dipoles)
208
assessing hydrophobic character
hydrophobic: molecules w/ mostly nonpolar bonds that lack dipolar interactions w/ water
e.g. many CH3 groups
hydrophilic: molecules w/ many polar bonds that promote dipolar interactions w/ water
209
ion-ion interactions
between ions, form salt bridges, strongest noncovalent bonds
210
london dispersion forces
weakest noncovalent bonds, but combined effect is strong
induced dipole-induced dipole interactions, result from formation of instantaneous dipoles induced by momentary distortions in electron clouds
- more pronounced in larger molecules because they are more polarizable
- larger electron cloud -> more polarizable -> stronger van der waals forces
-> higher melting point
211
covalent bonding trends: triple bonds to single bonds
decreasing overall bond energy and strength, increasing bond length, and decreasing bond rigidity
triple bond: 2 pi bonds -> no rotation w/o breaking side-to-side p orbital overlap
double bond: 1 pi bond
single bond: 0 pi bond -> free rotation, end-to-end overlapping orbitals
212
heat of solidification
- (negative) heat of fusion
213
heat of condensation
- (negative) heat of vaporization
214
in a heating curve, the flat part indicates
a phase change (heat added to overcome IMFs)
215
heat capacity Cp
q/(m*delta T)
q = heat energy
216
oxide properties
acidic oxide:
- mixed with H2O -> pH < 7
- mixed w/ NaOH -> salt forms (reacts w/ base)
basic oxide:
- mixed with H2O -> pH > 7
- mixed w/ HCl -> salt forms (reacts w/ acid)
217
VSEPR Theory
electron pairs around a central atom adopt an electron geometry that maximizes the separation between the electron domains and minimizes the repulsion between electrons
3 electron bonding domains + 0 nonbonding e- pair -> trigonal planar
3 electron bonding domains + 1 nonbonding e- pair -> trigonal pyramid
3 electron bonding domains + 2 nonbonding e- pairs -> T-shaped
4 electron bonding domains -> tetrahedral
218
viroids
- subviral infectious particles
- short circular single stranded RNA
- regions of self-complementarity
- generally non-coding for protein
- lack protein coats
- infect plants
- help Hep D
219
striated muscles
skeletal and cardiac
220
spleen function
- filter aged/damaged RBCs from blood
- reservoir/storage for blood
- immune response: B-cell activation, house macrophages
221
kidney
functional units: nephrons -> filter waste products out of blood and reabsorb useful solutes back into blood
blood enters kidney through renal arteries -> afferent arterioles carry blood to nephrons
-> glomerulus (capillary network), surrounded by Bowman's capsule that collects leaks glomerular fluid
-> blood exits glomerulus through efferent arterioles
222
glomerular filtration rate
rate at which fluid is filtered OUT of glomerular capillaries (glomerulus) and INTO Bowman's capsule
- proportional to hydrostatic (blood) pressure)
=> so GFR decreases if afferent arterioles constrict (less blood enters glomerulus) or efferent arterioles dilate (more blood exits glomerulus)
223
SDS-PAGE
disrupts only noncovalent bonds
under reducing conditions, disrupts disulfide bridges
anionic detergent coats proteins w/ a negative charge for them to migrate toward the anode and denatures proteins
224
parasympathetic nervous system:
pupils ___
bronchi ____
glucose release ____
gallbladder ____
intestinal activity ____
bladder _____
pupils constrict
bronchi constrict
glucose release inhibited (promote glucose uptake & glycogenesis)
gallbladder stimulated
intestinal activity stimulated
bladder contracted
225
sympathetic nervous system:
pupils ___
bronchi ____
glucose release ____
gallbladder ____
intestinal activity ____
bladder _____
pupils dilate (max light intake)
bronchi dilate
glucose release stimulated (+ glycolysis)
gallbladder inhibited
intestinal activity inhibited
bladder relaxed
epinephrine and norepinephrine secreted
226
viral assembly
requires host protein synthesis & trafficking machinery
1. virus enters via endocytosis
2. virus uncoated in phagolysosome
3. virus genomes replicate in host nucleus
4. viral protein synthesis in ER and cytosol
5. viral glycoproteins trafficked to membrane
6. viral capsid is assembled
7. viral envelope is acquired by budding
227
nuclei and ganglia
nuclei -> CNS
ganglia -> PNS
release Acetylcholine:
preganglionic neurons originate from nuclei
postganglionic neurons originate from ganglia
228
autonomic reflex arc
polysynaptic
- sensory neuron (afferent)
- interneuron
- preganglionic neuron (efferent)
- postganglionic neuron (efferent)
229
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent)
motor -> somatic (voluntary) and autonomic
autonomic -> sympathetic and parasympathetic
230
cooling body
- vasodilation of skin arterioles -> increase blood flow to skin capillaries and maximize heat loss through skin, smooth muscle surrounding blood vessels relax
- sweat
231
warming body
- vasoconstriction of skin arterioles -> minimize heat loss by diverting warm blood away from skin capillaries and toward blood vessels in interior of body, smooth muscle surrounding blood vessels contract
- shivering -> generate heat
232
stomach secretions
- G cells -> gastrin: signal parietal cells to secrete HCl
- parietal cells -> HCl (gastric juice; activates proteolytic enzymes, kills microbes, denatures proteins) & intrinsic factor (vit B12 absorption)
- chief cells -> pepsinogen (zymogen of pepsin, which cleaves polypeptides into smaller peptides when activated by low pH of gastric juice) & gastric lipase (hydrolysis of lipids in stomach)
- mucous cells -> mucus & bicarbonate
233
deamidation
produce NH3 from urea cycle -> Glutamine
release NH3 from an amide
234
pI = pH
- lack of charge minimizes solubility
- protein less stable, more prone to aggregation
- rich in non-ionizable amino acids (neutralized)
- uncommon but still active
235
tollens test
detect reducing sugars (have a free anomeric carbon) like aldehydes and hydroxyketones using Ag(NH3)2+
- sugars themselves are oxidized, free anomeric carbon
- aldehydes -> oxidized to carboxylic acids
- ketone (first undergo keto-enol tautomerization to produce an aldehyde before sugar is oxidized)
236
malonyl-CoA
inhibits fatty acid transport -> beta-oxidation decreased
237
beta-oxidation
breakdown of fatty acids into acetyl-CoA in mitochondria
1. oxidation (acyl-CoA dehydrogenase); use FAD
2. hydration (enoyl-CoA hydratase)
3. oxidation - use NAD+ -> form NADH and beta-ketoacyl-CoA (acetoacyl-CoA) = precursor of ketone body synthesis and cholesterol synthesis
4. cleavage (acetyl-CoA acyltransferase) -> acetyl-CoA
238
3' -> 5' exonuclease
acts at 3' end of new DNA strand (new nucleotides added to 3' ends by DNA polymerases acting from 5' -> 3') - opposite direction of polymerase to remove nucleotides that polymerase recently added
239
thermodynamic stability
tendency to form or break in chemical reactions
stable bond: forms during spontaneous reaction (no energy input like ATP or GTP required)
240
kinetic stability
stable bond: slow degradation (requires enzymes)
-> reactions with high activation energies
241
heme structure
porphyrin ring w/ central Fe2+ atom (iron center surrounded by N)
heme binds O2
242
holo form of heme
correctly folded w/ all co-factors
(lacking cofactors = apoproteins)
243
protein folding is driven by
hydrophobic interactions (energetically favorable) and unfolded by amphipathic molecules
protein folding -> hides as many hydrophobic residues in the interior of the protein as possible
244
delta G
-RTln(Kq)
245
zwitterion
near pH 7.4:
- protonated amino group (NH3+)
- deprotonated carboxyl group (COO-)
pKa of COOH: 2 -> deprotonated first
pKa of NH3: 9
246
cori cycle
connects glycolysis (anaerobic) and gluconeogenesis
anaerobic conditions: NADH cannot regenerate NAD+ through ETC b/c insufficient O2 to accept electrons so NADH donates e- to pyruvate -> reduced to lactate
-> lactate removed from muscles to liver through bloodstream
-> lactate converted to glucose by gluconeogenesis and carried back from liver to muscles
-> glucose to pyruvate (glycolysis) in muscles again
247
competitive inhibitors
bind E only
- prevent S from binding to active site
- Km increased (-1/Km shift to right)
- Vmax unaffected: when [S] is sufficiently high, it can outcompete the inhibitor and saturate the enzyme
248
uncompetitive inhibitors
binds ES complex only
- Km reduced (-1/Km shift to left)
- Vmax reduced
by same factor (1/Vmax upward shift)
249
mixed inhibitors
bind both E and ES, but may have different affinities for E and ES
- Km increased or decreased
- Vmax decreased or increased
- lines in the inhibitory profile intersect above the x-axis
250
noncompetitive inhibitors
bind both E and ES with SAME AFFINITIES
slow reaction rate but do not change the affinity of E for S:
- Km unaffected
- Vmax reduced
251
nonassociative learning
organism repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus: habituation, dishabituation, sensitization, desensitization
252
habituation
decreased response to a stimulus over time - repeated exposure to stimulus results in decreased response
253
dishabituation
renewed response to a previously habituated stimulus
254
sensitization
increased response to a stimulus over time
255
desensitization
decreased response to a previously sensitized stimulus over time
256
frustration-aggression theory
individuals exhibit VIOLENCE as a result of having a GOAL or EFFORT BLOCKED or defeated
frustration -> anger -> aggression
257
conflict theory
- macro-level
- how inequalities between social classes cause conflict
- society = a struggle for limited resources
- inequality based on social class
- thesis (bourgeoisie ran factories while working class provided labor) + antithesis (desire of working class to change) can't exist peacefully => struggle leads to a synthesis of the two by creating a new state (e.g. equal rights and women's suffrage movements)
- social stratification
- Marx, Weber
258
optimal arousal theory
optimal level of psychological or mental arousal maximizes performance
Yerkes-Dodson Law: people perform best when they are moderately aroused
259
incentive theory
external rewards motivate individuals to engage in behavior resulting in most desirable outcomes
260
flashbulb memory
vivid, detailed autobiographical explicit memory for event that was extremely distinct, emotional, or significant for individual
- for both positive and negative events
- more vivid
- more detailed
- greater confidence in memory
- questionable accuracy
- declines with age
261
Commonsense view:
James-Lange:
Schachter-Singer:
Cannon-Bard:
Commonsense view:
stimulus -> emotion -> body response (arousal)
James-Lange:
stimulus -> arousal -> emotion
Schachter-Singer:
stimulus -> arousal -> interpretation (cognitive) -> emotion
Cannon-Bard:
stimulus -> arousal = emotion (independently and simultaneously)
Lazarus:
stimulus -> cognitive (labeling) -> emotion + arousal
262
limbic system
(cingulate gyrus: emotional sensory input)
thalamus: relays info
hypothalamus: homeostasis and endocrine system -> regulate pituitary gland & autonomic NS
hippocampus: memory consolidation
amygdala: primal emotions
263
central/foveal vision
- high density of cone photoreceptors -> sensitive to colors and bright light
- highest visual acuity: image sharpness and clarity/detail
264
peripheral vision
- high density of rod photoreceptors -> detect dim/dark light motion
- high light sensitivity
265
vicarious learning
observer intuits feelings that another might be experiencing
266
rational choice theory and exchange theory
- micro-level
RCT:
- individual behaviors & interactions attempt to maximize personal gain & minimize personal cost
- people motivated to do what's best to get more good - act in self-interest
- cost benefit analysis
- calculate by assuming: completeness (every action can be ranked), transitivity (A > B and B > C so A > C), independence of irrelevant alternatives
Exchange theory: application of RCT to social interactions
- society as series of interactions between individuals
- study family relationships, partner selection, parenting, etc
- behavior of individual in interaction can be determined by weighing rewards and punishments of each action
- assumption: people seek to rationally maximize profit
- interactions: self-interests and interdependence
267
parkinson's disease
substantia nigra -> dopamine-producing neurons degenerate
- tremor
- loss of ONLY dopaminergic neurons
- less substantia nigra staining - part of basal ganglia (motor functions and some mental)
- lew bodies containing alpha synuclein in DA neurons are clumped together
- genetic mutations, chemicals
268
ADHD
inattention & impulsivity
269
types of memory
sensory:
- auditory/echoic: 3-4 sec
- visual/iconic: < 1 sec
↓
short-term memory: ~20sec, 5-9 items
↓
long-term memory: lifetime duration, unlimited capacity
- explicit/declarative: any facts/events you can verbally and clearly describe -> episodic (experiences) and semantic (facts)
- implicit/nondeclarative: procedural (skills, tasks) & emotional/reflexive -> including memory for associations between stimuli
270
working memory
manipulation & processing of info, what you're thinking about at the moment
magic number: can hold 7 +/- 2 items at a time
- visuospatial sketchpad
- central executive: attention, multi-tasking
- phonological loop: spoken & written info in both iconic and echoic memory
- episodic buffer (visual + verbal info): temporal processing + integrate info from long-term to working memory
- serial position effect
271
motion parallax
- relative motion
- monocular cue where objects in foreground are perceived as moving faster than objects in background
- perceive depth & motion
HIT R L L (Hit really long lines)
Height in plane
Interposition
Texture gradient
Relative size
Light & shadow
Linear perspective
272
retinal disparity
- binocular cue
- each eye transmits slightly different image to the brain -> infers distance from disparity
273
convergence
- binocular cue
- extent to which eyes turn inward to focus on an object - closer objects require more convergence, which helps brain infer distance
274
phi phenomenon
series of still photographs presented in rapid succession appear to be moving
275
divided attention (multitasking) components
- similarity (dissimilar = easier)
- difficulty (simple = easier)
- practice (well-practiced = easier)
276
interference effect
memory process describing proactive and retroactive interference
277
spreading activation
= priming
- activation of one node (concept) within individual's semantic network (which develops based on individual experience and knowledge) triggers activation of other, related nodes
278
Power =
IV = (I^2)*R = (V^2)/R
279
parallel circuit
1/R = sum of inverse resistances
280
torques in static equilibrium
net torque = counterclockwise torque - clockwise torque = 0
torque = Fd = mgd = r*F*sin(theta)
281
voltmeter
- measures voltage drop in parallel circuits
- has very large resistances (minimize Iv)
282
moving point charge
F = qvBsin(theta)
283
current-carrying wire
F = ILBsin(theta)
284
gravitational force between two objects
F = (k*|q1*q2|)/r^2
285
E
= kq/r^2
286
frequency f
= v/lambda
287
speed is ____ to tension
proportional
288
Snell's law
n1*sin(theta 1) = n2*sin(theta 2)
289
theta 1 = theta c
c = critical angle
theta 2 = 90
290
theta 1 > theta c
total internal reflection
incident angle > critical angle
291
convex lens
converging lens
292
concave lens
diverging lens
293
conduction
heat transfer via stationary physical/direct contact
294
convection
heat transfer via flow of fluids
295
radiation
heat transfer via electromagnetic waves
296
harmonic frequency for standing wave on string
lamba n = (2/n)*L
fn = n*f1
297
power P
= W/t = E/t
W = work = change in potential energy = m*g*delta h
298
work W
= Fdsin(theta) or Fdcos(theta)
= F*d
= change in kinetic energy
299
gated diffraction
max intensity: sin(theta) = (m*lamba)/d
300
Henry's Law
S = Kh * Pgas
S = solubility
kH = Henry's constant
Pgas = partial pressure of gas
or Pgas = kH*[gas]
highly soluble = high blood-gas coefficient = dissolve easily in blood (high concentration to reach threshold Pgas)
301
normal inspiration
negative pressure breathing:
diaphragm contracts
↓
volume of pleural cavity increases
interpleural pressure (IPP) decreases
↓
lungs expand to fill pleural cavity
302
pulmonary resiliency
lungs' ability to RECOIL after being stretched
- elastic recoil: restorative force
- surface tension: collapsing pressure (surface area ↓ )
303
venturi effect
↓ fluid pressure when flow velocity increased at constriction sections of tube
oxygen pressure Pair = oxygen static pressure P + oxygen flow pressure (1/2)(rho)(v^2)
=> Pair > P
=> air enters the mask because static pressure of the air is larger than the static pressure of the oxygen that flows into the mask
304
turbulent flow
disorganized fluid flow at high velocities (increased flow resistance)
305
electromotive force (emf)
energy per unit of charge that is supplied by a battery to move through a circuit
emf = V + Ir
r = internal resistance
Ir = V loss
V = emf - Ir
306
bernoulli's principle
P1 + 0.5*rho*(v^2)1 = P2 + 0.5*rho*(v^2)2
P = rho*g*h
307
180 degree phase difference
complete destructive interference
308
0 degree phase difference
complete constructive interference
309
capacitance C
Q/V
V = voltage
Q = charge in Coulomb
310
titration curve
equivalence point (steepest point of curve): N1*V1 = N2*V2
midpoint (flat part): pH = pKa or pOH = pKb
311
E photon
= (h*c)/lambda
312
atomic radius trend
increases going down the group (additional e- shell) and across to the left (additional H+ draw in e- cloud)
313
pi bonds
side-to-side overlap
314
sigma bonds
end-to-end overlap
315
half-life
fraction remaining = 1/2^n
n = # of half-lives
316
combustion rxn
CH4 (hydrocarbon fuel) + 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O
317
balanced net ionic equations conserve
BOTH # of atoms AND net charge!!
318
single-replacement reaction
reaction of a compound w/ a free element
=> products: a new compound & a new element
319
double-replacement reaction
cations/anions of two ionic species exchange counter ions
=> products: a new insoluble product (precipitate)
320
theoretical yield
max amount of product that can form if ALL the limiting reagent is converted into products
321
percent yield
actual/theoretical * 100%
322
HA + H2O <=> H3O+ + A-
Keq = ([H3O+][A-])/[HA]
323
entropy S
delta S = q/T
324
antiviral mutagen
- changes genome sequence
- decreased production of viral molecules required for viral replication in host cells
325
bacterial transformation
bacterium takes up DNA directly from its extracellular environment via pore or transport proteins
326
plasmid DNA
circular, double-stranded, nonchromosomal
327
RT-PCR vs. Western Blot vs qPCR
RT-PCR: detects mRNA (mRNA -> cDNA -> elongate DNA sequence) - changes in protein expression at transcriptional levels
Western Blot: detects proteins
qPCR: detects DNA
328
ribosome subunits
eukaryotes: 80S (60S + 40S)
prokaryotes: 70S (50S + 30S)
ribosomes synthesize proteins in free state in cystoplasm or bound state when attached to rough ER
329
malate aspartate shuttle
- translocates malate from cytosol to mitochondrial matrix, allowing it to be converted to oxaloacetate and producing NADH to be used in ETC
330
germline mutations
- reproductive cells
- meiosis to produce gametes
- entire organism carries mutation so half of gametes carry mutation
331
somatic mutation
- DNA alteration after conception -> patch of affected area
=> do NOT pass mutations to offspring b/c somatic cells are not directly involved in zygote formation
no gametes carry mutation
332
4 NADH & 1 FADH2 per pyruvate
4 NADH -> 40H+
1 FADH2 -> 6 H+
46H+ * 1 ATP/4H+ = 11.5 ATP x 2 = 23 ATP per 2 mol of pyruvate produced from complex V
333
if rate of ES complex formation > rate of product formation
Km > Kcat
334
aliphatic (non-aromatic) amino acids
Gly, Ala, Pro, Val, Leu, Ile, Met
335
aromatic amino acids
Trp, Tyr, Phe, (His)
336
polar uncharged amino acids
Ser, Thr, Asn, Gln, Tyr, Cys
337
acidic amino acids
Asp, Glu
338
basic amino acids
Lys, Arg, His
339
random x chromosome inactivation results in a ____ phenotype
mosaic
explanation: one x chromosome is inactivated at random in embryonic cell during development
340
water-soluble vitamins
B, C -> excess stored in urine
341
fat-soluble vitamins
A, D, E, K -> accumulates in adipose tissue
342
pathways directly producing both ATP/GTP and NADH
glycolysis and Krebs cycle
ETC -> just ATP
fatty acid oxidation -> just NADH
343
cutin
derived from waxes, contain multiple ester groups
344
lipid rafts
regions of high order (low S) of cell membrane
-> rich in sterols & poor in phospholipids
345
amino acid composition
by priority (usually): amine or amide group (N atom) > carbonyl carbon > R group > hydrogen atom
exception: Cysteine because side chain has higher priority than carbonyl group
346
transverse tubules
allows for action potential propagation in skeletal muscle fibers, analogous to the axon in the nervous system
muscle fiber APs propagate along the sarcolemma (plasma membrane), which burrows deep into the muscle fiber, forming hollow structures known as transverse (T) tubules
=> APs propagate along T-tubules -> rapid and complete depolarization of the muscle fiber
=> Ca2+ release from sarcoplasmic reticulum
=> muscle fiber contraction
347
motor endplate
muscle fiber component of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), which facilitates signal transmission BETWEEN cells
348
mitochondria
cellular organelles that have their own genome
main functions: ATP generation, heat production, beta-oxidation of fatty acids
during fertilization, mitochondria within sperm do NOT usually pass into the ovum
=> typically only MATERNAL MITOCHONDRIA ARE TRANSMITTED to the fetus, only affected females transmit abnormal mitochondria to offspring
349
erythrocytes
- mature RBCs
- biconcave, disc-shapped cells
- mainly contain hemoglobin (carrier protein that transports O2 to tissues)
- expel their nucleus and other organelles during synthesis in the bone marrow (erthropoiesis) to maximize available space for hemoglobin
- never consume O2 they transport b/c they produce energy ONLY via anaerobic glycolysis -> O2-independent
350
hepatocytes
- speciallized cells in liver that contain mitochondria
- generate energy for synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids + detox metabolites & drugs
351
liver
- regulate blood glucose
- molecule storage like Fe and glycogen
- synthesis of macromolecules like plasma proteins
- produce bile
- detox drugs and waste products
- targeted by insulin to decrease glucose production (gluconeogenesis) and increase glycogen formation (glycogenesis) after a meal
352
polyacrylamide gel (PAGE)
- usually used to analyze proteins or shorter DNA fragments b/c it has smaller pores that can slow down the molecules to facilitate their separation
denaturing PAGE: use denaturing agents like SDS or urea to denature molecules being analyzed, gets rid of higher levels of protein structure, imparts relatively uniform negative charge on the proteins (-> proteins travel toward anode & separate based on molecular weight alone)
nucleic acid PAGE: surgar-phosphate background is already negatively charged, so no SDS needed. Denaturing substance like urea added to separate double-standed DNA into single strands by breaking hydrogen bonds between two DNA strands
reducing PAGE: break disulfide bonds in PROTEIN PAGE, not DNA PAGE (nucleic acids do not form disulfide bonds)
native PAGE: no denaturants or reducing agents -> allows DNA molecules to traverse the gel in their native (unaltered) state
353
complete penetrance
all individuals with the genotype express the phenotype at EQUAL levels
354
complete penetrance & variable expressivity
all individuals with the genotype express the phenotype but at varying levels
355
incomplete penetrance
only some individuals with the genotype express the phenotype, but those who do express the phenotype do so at equal levels
356
incomplete penetrance & variable expressivity
only some individuals with the genotype express the phenotype, but those who do express the phenotype do so at varying levels
357
bottleneck effect
drastic reduction in population size that occurs in response to some sudden & uncontrollable disaster => no genotype or phenotype is protective and members of the population are eliminated RANDOMLY => substantially alters genetic diversity & allele frequencies in a way that does not necessarily follow the principles of natural selection
sign: deleterious mutant allele becomes more prevalent in the population that WT allel
358
PCR reaction steps
use thermal cycling to amplify small DNA fragments
1. denaturation of DNA template by exposing sample to high temperatures
2. annealing of primers to the single-stranded flanking ends of the target region
3. elongation: DNA polymerase uses the primers to elongate the new daughter strands in 5' -> 3' direction (dNTPs)
359
PCR reagents
- source DNA template: contains dNTPs and includes target region to be amplified and its adjacent flanking sequences where primers bind
- primer pairs
- DNA polymerase: replicate DNA template using dNTPs
- buffer solution w/ cations: bind negatively charged phosphates on DNA backbone and those on dNTPs, neutralizing the negative charge of DNA and stabilizing primer-template binding
360
ectoderm products
outermost layer: nervous system, integumentary system (skin, hair, nails), linings of nostrils, mount, and anus
- epidermis
- melanocytes
- retinal neurons
- astrocytes
361
germ cells
sperm and egg
362
mesoderm products
middle layer: musculoskeletal system, circulatory system, portions of the reproductive & urinary systems
- myocytes
- osteocytes
- erythrocytes
363
endoderm products
innermost layer: organs assisting in digestion (liver, pancreas, etc) and epithelium lining of the respiratory & digestive tracts
- mucous cells (stomach)
- Islet beta cells
- alveolar cells
364
blastocyst
fertilization -> mitosis -> blastocyst divided into trophoblast & inner cell mass
bastocyst -> gastrulation - developing embryo forms germ layers: endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm
365
initiation of muscle contraction
at resting state: in absence of Ca2+, tropomyosin blocks myosin-binding sites of actin filament
increased [Ca2+]:
Ca2+ binds troponin
-> troponin binds tropomyosin & shifts position of tropomyosin on actin filament
-> myosin binds actin
-> cross-bridge formation: myosin head binds to myosin-binding sites on actin
366
type I muscle fibers
- slow-twitch
- myoglobin-rich (most red)
- slowest contractile velocity
- many capillaries
- mitochondria-rich
- fatigue-resistant
367
type IIa
- fast-twitch
- oxidative-glycolytic
- intermediate amount of myoglobin & capillaries
- contract several times faster than type I fibers
- mitochondria-rich
- fatigue-resistant
368
type IIx muscle fibers
- fast-twitch
- oxidative-glycolytic
- myoglobin-poor
- mitochondria-poor
- least amount of capillarization
- contract several times faster than type I or IIa fibers
- reliant on anaerobic metabolism (glycolysis, fermentation)
- quickly fatigued
369
sarcoplasmic reticulum
- specialized endoplasmic reticulum in skeletal muscle fibers
- stores Ca2+ -> released into cytosol in response to stimuli (e.g. depolarization)
- storage of Ca2+ in SR generates large Ca2+ concentration gradient across SR wall
- Ca2+ channel in SR membrane allows large amount of Ca2+ to rapidly diffuse down its concentration gradient into the cytosol
- SR Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) pumps released Ca2+ back into the SR, restoring initial gradient & allowing for efficient recycling of intracellular Ca2+ stores
370
cell cycle
Interphase
G0 phase: cell cycle arrest, resting phase
G1 phase: presynthetic cell growth, organelle duplication
S phase: DNA replication/duplication
G2 phase: premitotic cell growth, DNA damage repair
Mitosis
M phase: cell division - mitosis
371
capillary hydrostatic pressure
pushing force of fluid (blood) against capillary walls
increased CHP -> fluids exit capillaries
372
capillary oncotic pressure
pulling force that solutes (proteins) in the blood exert on water via osmosis
increased COP -> fluids enter capillaries
373
interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure
pushing force of fluid against capillary walls
increased IFHP -> fluids enter capillaries
374
interstitial fluid oncotic pressure
pulling force that solutes in interstitial fluid exert on blood in the capillaries
increased IFOP -> fluids exit capillaries
375
blood pressure decreased when blood vessels ____ or when blood volume ____
blood vessels dilate or blood volume decreases
376
reinin-angiotensin system (RAS)
- reabsroption of water and salts by kidney
- activated when BP drops -> renin released by kidneys to cleave angiotensinogen to form angiotensin I -> angiotensin II (by angiotensin-converting enzyme)
=> raises BP by inducing:
- release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex (increase blood volume through water retention)
- constriction of arterioles (increase BP w/o changing blood volume)
377
aldosterone
- released in response to RAS activation or increased serum level of K+
- acts on distal tubules and collecting ducts of nephrons
- promote reabsorption of Na+ and secretion of K+
=> increase osmolarity (solute concentration) of renal interstitial fluid
-> promotes water reabsorption
=> blood volume and BP increase
378
ADH
- released by posterior pituitary when BP falls or when blood osmolarity rises
- promotes water reabsorption by increasing permeability of distal tubule and collecting duct to water
- decreases blood osmolarity
- induces vasoconstriction
=> increase blood pressure
379
urination
urine formed in nephron -> funneled into ureters (tubes connecting kidneys to bladder) -> urine accumulates in bladder until exists body via urethra
urine collection:
- detrusor muscle (smooth muscle lining bladder) is relaxed
- internal urethral sphincter (smooth muscle surrounding urethra) & external urethral sphincter (striated muscle downstream IUS) are contracted to prevent urine from flowing down urethra
urination:
- detrusor muscle contracts -> push urine out of bladder into urethra
- relaxation of IUS -> opens urethra to allow urine to pass
380
hydrostatic pressure
force exerted by liquid on the walls of its container
- hydrostatic pressure of blood = BP = push fluids through capillary wall pores and into the interstitial fluid
increase hydrostatic pressure of renal artery -> glomerular retention -> increase urine output
increase hydrostatic pressure of Bowman's capsule -> push fluid into glomerular capillaries -> decrease urine output
381
osmotic pressure
= i*M*R*T
i= # of species a molecule forms when dissolved in a solution
M = solute molar concentration (mol/L)
R = ideal gas constant 0.0821L*atm/mol*k
T = solution temperature (K)
force drawing water into a solution by osmosis
- increases as solute concentration (osmolarity) increases
increase osmotic pressure of filtrate -> draws fluid back into nephron -> increase urine output
increase osmotic pressure of peritubular capillary -> draw fluid into bloodstream -> decrease urine output
382
kidneys
- increase water reabsorption when BP is low + decrease water reabsorption when BP is high
- respond to high blood osmolarity by increasing water reabsorption and decreasing solute reabsorption
383
primary/direct active transport
uses energy released by ATP hydrolysis (by transmembrane ATPase)
384
secondary/indirect active transport
coupled transport: uses energy released by movement of one substance along its concentration gradient to move another substance against its concentration gradient
385
nephron
functional unit of kidney
- glomerulus: bed of capillaries that receives & filters blood from renal arteries
- long tubule: filtered fluid is concentrated into urine
during urine formation, nephron facilitates removal of some solutes from blood into filtrate and reabsorption of useful solutes back into blood from filtrate -> filtrate passes from Bowman's capsule into long tubule:
1. proximal tubule: important nutrients like amino acids, vitamins, salt, glucose, H2O are reabsorbed from nephron into blood through peritubular capillaries + waste products secreted
2. loop of Henle: descending limb (passive reabsorption of H2O via osmosis, impermeable to ions) and ascending limb (transports filtrate out of medulla and back to cortex) - permeable to salt but not to water -> active reabsorption of ions
3. distal tubule: antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin) and aldosterone promote reabsorption of water
4. collecting duct: ADH and aldosterone act on the same way as distal tubule
386
clonal selection of B or T cells require
- variety of B and T cell clones
- antigen receptors for a specific pathogen
- replication of antigen-responsive clones
387
electrical synapses in nervous system
- information transmitted across electrical synapses is conveyed in the form of ionic current that passes directly from presynaptic to postsynaptic neuron via gap junction
- cytoplasmic continuity and small gap => current passes ~instantaneously
- signals (ions) flow bidirectionally across synapse
388
chemical synapses in nervous system
- unidirectional signal transmission at chemical synapses
- non-continuous cytoplasms of pre- and postsynaptic cells
- neurotransmitters diffuse across synaptic cleft and bind to postsynaptic membrane receptors to generate a new ionic current in postsynaptic cell
=> slower transmission than electrical synapses b/c signal must be modified (electrical to chemical to electrical) and must cross larger intercellular distance
389
synaptic transmission via ligand-gated ion channels
1. APs reach axon terminal of presynaptic neuron
2. Ca2+ channels open
3. Ca2+ enter cell
4. Ca2+ triggers neurotransmitter release via exocytosis
5. Neurotransmitter binds ligand-gated ion channel on postsynaptic neuron to allow ions through
6. Inhibitory or excitatory cell response
390
T cells
bind foreign antigens displayed by MHC proteins found on surfaces of other cells
- helper T cells produce cytokines -> activate other immune cells
- cytotoxic T cells induce apoptosis in cells infected by pathogens
+ some T cells divide into memory T cells
391
order by which an antigenic (produces immune response) sequence of amino acids is brought in contact with a T-cell receptor by an MHC
full-length protein -> free digested protein fragments -> MHC II -> T-cell receptor
fragments can also be transferred to MHC I, but these fragments are NOT transferred from one MHC to another
when antigenic protein fragments are transferred to MHC I, presented to T cell as a complex w/ MHC I and not as free fragments newly dissociated from MHC I
392
immune system
- nonspecific = innate
- specific = adaptive -> humoral (B cells) and cell-mediated (T cells - only activated by antigen presentation)
when antigens are presented on cell surface, they are in complex with MHC proteins
-> all nucleated cells have MHC I, but certain immune cells (macrophages, lymphocytes, dendritic cells) also contain MHC II molecules => "professional" antigen-presenting cells
393
simple somatic reflex (involving skeletal muscle)
stimulus -> sensor (sensory receptor) -> input signal (afferent neuron) -> integrating center (spinal cord) -> output signal (efferent neuron) -> response (output, effector organ)
- both somatic and autonomic reflexes have afferent and efferent motor neurons
- some somatic neurons and all autonomic neurons have interneurons
394
solubility product constant Ksp
aZ (s) <=> bX (aq) + cY (aq)
Ksp = [X]^b[Y]^c
multiply concentrations of dissolved ions (aq) raised to the power of their stoichiometric coefficients
395
Bronsted-Lowry acid
donates a proton
396
buffer systems
compromised of:
weak acid + its conjugate base OR
weak base + its conjugate acid
to counteract H+ or OH- ions from any strong acid or strong base that is added to the solution
buffering capacity: +/- 1 pH unit away from pKa
397
when a polyprotic acid is titrated w/ a strong base (OH-), ____ equivalent(s) is needed to neutralize each acidic proton
1
398
pKa and pH
pK == pH where fraction of folded DNA is 0.5
pKa = -log(Ka)
pH = -log[H+]
pOH = -log[OH-]
Ka = 10^-pKa = ([H+][A-])/[HA]
low pkA = low pH (stronger acid)
pKa + pKb = 14
399
pH = pKa
[HA] = [A-]
400
pH < pKa (solution is more acidic)
[HA] > [A-]
401
pH > pKa (solution is more basic)
[HA] < [A-]
402
negative molar enthalpy
heat flows from the reaction system to the surroundings => raises temperature
- exothermic reaction
403
breaking bonds ____ energy
consumes
404
forming bonds ____ energy
releases
405
positive molar enthalpy
- endothermic reaction
- rxn absorbs energy from surroundings => lowers temperature
406
state function
- depends only on the initial and final states of the system, and NOT on the path taken for the transition between the states
enthalpy, temperature, density, volume, pressure, internal energy, Gibbs free energy, entropy, enthalpy
407
paramagnetic
if unpaired electrons remain, the atom is paramagnetic and the unpaired electrons will be attracted to an external magnetic field
- electron spins align parallel to the applied magnetic field
- attracted to magnets
- field bends toward the material
408
diamagnetic
if all electrons are paired, the atom is diamagnetic and the paired electrons will be repelled by a magnetic field
- electron spins are anti-parallel to the applied magnetic field
- repelled by magnets
- field bends away from the material
409
electron capture
treat like beta positive decay
410
polarizability
extent to which an electron cloud of an atom can be distorted by an external charge or by an applied electric field to produce a dipole
411
electron affinity
tendency of an atom to accept an additional electron by measuring the energy change when an electron is added to an atom
412
electronegativity
tendency of an atom to attract electrons within a bond
413
ionization energy
- opposite of electron affinity
- energy required to remove an electron from an atom
- easier to remove valence e- as it occupies higher level farther from the nucleus and less tightly bound
- increases across a period
- decreases moving down a group
414
first vs second ionization energy
first: removal of the first electron from a neutral atom of an element - increase across a row from left to right and decreases down a column
-> removing valence e- from larger atoms require less energy than from smaller atoms because the valence electrons occupy a higher energy level where they are less tightly bound
second: removal of a second electron- increase across a row and decrease down a column EXCEPT when the second electron being removed is NOT a valence electron (Na has much higher 2nd ionization energy that Mg b/c Na has only one valence electron and removing a second electron from Na requires a loss of a core electron - availability of a second valence electron causes the 2nd ionization energy of Mg to have the lowest value across the row).
415
sublimation
solid to gas
416
freezing
temperature at which solid and liquid phases of a substance are in equilibrium; occurs when the kinetic energy of a molecule can no longer overcome the INTERMOLECULAR forces binding it to nearby molecules
freezing point is determined by the strength and extent of intermolecular forces acting between molecules => affected by presence of solutes
417
hydrogen bonding
when a partially positive hydrogen atom in one molecule is attracted to the partial negative charge on an electronegative atom in another molecule
- between a H atom of one molecule and an (small) EN atom with a lone e- pair on another molecule
- essentially limited to F, O, N
418
vapor pressure and boiling point
vapor pressure: partial pressure of the gas released from liquid phase at any given temperature; boundary line between gas and liquid phases, increases with temperature
boiling point temperature: temp. at which vapor pressure = ambient pressure
decreased vapor pressure = higher boiling point (need to heat to higher temperature for vapor pressure to reach same ambient pressure and begin to boil)
419
greater London dispersion forces
higher boiling point, more energy required to overcome intermolecular forces that cause attractions between molecules during phase change from liquid to gas
London dispersion forces are between instantaneous dipoles and are greater in larger molecules (larger e- cloud and more polarizable)
420
reverse sign of reactants' enthalpies of formation
because they are consumed, not formed
421
standard enthalpies of formation for each component must be
multiplied by their stoichiometric coefficients
422
delta G
= delta(H)- T*delta(S)
423
Keq > 1
ln(Keq) > 1 -> delta G = -RTln(Keq) so delta G is negative and SPONTANEOUS
424
Keq = 1
equilibrium
forward reaction rate = reverse reaction rate
=> concentrations of the reactants and the products become CONSTANT
425
0 < Keq < 1
ln(Keq) < 0 so delta G > 0 -> NONSPONTANEOUS
426
stop codon
UAA, UAG, UGA
427
untranslated regions
- start upstream of the start codon and downstream of the stop codon
- do NOT code for amino acids
428
DNA backbone
deoxyribose (5 carbon sugars), phosphate groups, covalent bonds (phosphodiester linkage between 3' OH of deoxyribose and 5' phosphate group), nitrogenous bases attached to deoxyribose sugars
sugar-phosphate backbone linked by phosphodiester bonds on the outside + nitrogen-containing bases paired by hydrogen bonds on the inside
429
what do viruses possess that encapsulins don't have?
genetic material
430
virus
genetic material (RNA or DNA), capsid (protein shell), tail sheath, tail fiber, can only be replicated within a living host cell
NO CHROMOSOMES
431
using bacterial growth to assess antibiotic sensitivity
bacteria w/ higher antibiotic sensitivity: high antibiotic quantity -> less bacterial colonies formed in mutant (lacking encapsulins) vs WT cells
bacteria w/ lower antibiotic sensitivity: high antibiotic quantity -> similar bacterial colonies formed in mutant vs WT cells
antibiotic sensitivity: relates bacterial response (diminished growth, death, etc) to antibiotic concentration
432
role of protein-enclosed region in bacteria
provide a compartment protecting specific proteins from cytosolic proteases (which degrade proteins)
433
background measurements
establish the baseline values of a variable in the setting of the experiment due to factors other than those being experimentally manipulated
434
bacterial growth curve
lag, exponential growth, stationary, death
435
glutamate
- excitatory neurotransmitter -> promote AP initiation
- depolarize postsynaptic membrane
- Na+ ions enter
436
GABA
- inhibitory neurotransmitter -> inhibit AP initiation
- Cl- ions enter
437
ribosome production
ribosomal proteins carried from cytoplasm to NUCLEOLUS:
rDNA + RNA polymerase I -> pre-rRNA -> rRNA -> immature subunits carried back to cytoplasm -> mature subunits 40s and 60s
438
nucleolus
primary site of rRNA transcription by RNA polymerase I
dense, round body found within the nucleus that contains rDNA -> here, RNA polymerase I functions exclusively to transcribe pre-rRNA into single template that is subsequently processed into mature rRNA
439
lipid synthesis happens in the
smooth ER
440
ribosome attachment happens in the
rough ER
- long, folded membranes coated w/ attached ribosomes that translate proteins destined for secretion into the rough ER lumen
441
nucleosome
within chromatin, consists of DNA and histones that DNA is wrapped around
DNA double helix wraps twice around histone octamer to form nucleosome (H2A, H2B, H3, H4) -> DNA is negatively charged so histone proteins must have a net positive charge to facilitate DNA binding
442
SDS-PAGE under reducing conditions
separates proteins by size
- samples denatured (SDS) and reduced (Beta-mercaptoethanol)
- samples loaded on highly crosslinked polyacrylamide gel (rather than agarose gel w/ larger pores b/c proteins are smaller than DNA molecules): electric current applied & samples migrate down gel (negatively coated proteins travel toward anode/positive electrode)
- bands stained for visualization -> smaller proteins migrated further down gel
443
telomeres
regions at chromosomal ends that are repeatedly truncated w/ each round of cell division
- ends of chromosomes
- contain repeats of only TTAGGG (added by telomerase)
444
centromeres
join two sister chromatids and are required for proper chromosome division during mitosis
445
both telomeres and centromeres are composed of
heterochromatin
446
telomerase
RNA-directed DNA polymerase (reverse transcriptase that transcribes DNA using RNA template)
- only embryonic stem cells and germline cells (NOT somatic cells) express telomerase -> very long telomeres
- allow cells to proliferate indefinitely in a controlled manner
447
green fluorescent protein (GFP)
track mobility of proteins in a cell - protein of interest tagged w/ GFP and its movement, localization, and expression can be studied in cells based on its fluorescence
448
fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP)
process in which the fluorescence of a GFP-tagged molecule is first measured and then destroyed in targeted cell regions
-> time course for fluorescence recovery in the photobleached region can be assessed as a measure of molecular mobility for the GFP-tagged molecule (free GFP replaces photobleached ones)
449
total gametes produced in a single cycle - spermatogenesis
4 haploid cells
450
total gametes produced in a single cycle - oogenesis
1 haploid ovum + 2-3 polar bodies that eventually degenerate
451
meiotic cell divisions - spermatogenesis
- no interruption
- produce similarly sized daughter cells after each round
452
meiotic cell divisions - oogenesis
- arrest at certain stages
- produce cells of unequal size (larger secondary oocyte and smaller polar body)
453
spermatogenesis
- before puberty, stem cells (spermatogonia) undergo continuous mitotic divisions within testes
- at puberty, spermatogenesis (sperm production) begins & continues throughout life:
- some daughter cells from mitotic divisions of spermatogonia become primary spermatocytes => become mature sperm via meiosis
454
oogenesis
in female embryo, oogonia (stem cells) undergo mitosis to produce primary oocytes -> surrounded by follicle => undergo meiosis to mature but become arrested at prophase I of meiosis I until puberty -> at puberty, one primary oocyte is selected during each menstrual cycle to complete meiosis I => secondary oocyte => meiosis II, arrested at metaphase II and completes meiosis II + fully matures ONLY if fertilization occurs!!
=> follicle ruptures from ovary and oocyte enters fallopian tube to be fertilized by mature sperm
455
lethal dose value LD50
minimum dose causing death in 50% of group members
456
genes close together on SAME chromosome
linked
457
structure of long bones (e.g. femur)
- epiphyses: rounded ends, joint surfaces covered by articular cartilage
- diaphysis: hollow shaft (medullary cavity) filled w/ bone marrow (primarily yellow type in adulthood) - long skinny part of bone
- metaphyses: where diaphysis and epiphyses meet - epiphyseal growth plate exists between epiphyses and metaphyses
- periosteum: thin layer of connective tissue that covers & protects long bones but does not cover joint surfaces
458
skeletal system functions
- mobility: framework for muscle attachment to generate body movement
- structural support & protection: weight-bearing support, protect internal organs from injury
- blood cell production (hematopoiesis): red bone marrow contains hematopoeitic stem cells that give rise to red & white blood cells
- mineral reservoir: bone stores phosphate & calcium -> deposited & released based on physiological requirements
459
bone structure
- cortical/compact bone surrounds cancellous/spongy bone
- compact bone is organized into structural units called osteons = haversian systems -> made up of lamellae that surrounds a central haversian canal (runs parallel to the long axis and through which blood vessels and nerve traverse)
- volkmann canals run perpendicular to long axis of bone -> allow passage of blood vessels & nerves between different haversian canals
- osteogenic, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts: old bone broken down by osteoclasts and new bone deposited by osteoblasts
- osteoblasts become trapped within lacunae in lamellar matrix and known as osteocytes at this stage
- within each osteon of compact bone, lacunae connect to one another via canaliculi channels to allow osteocytes waste exchange & nutrient delivery <= signaling molecules released by osteocytes travel to other bone cells via canaliculi
460
cartilage types
cartilage: connective tissue made up of cells that secrete specialized extracellular matrix called chondrin -> collagen fibers, proteoglycans, water
lacks nerves and avascular
types: hyaline, elastic, fibrous
461
hyaline cartilage
- reduces friction between bony surfaces to facilitate joint movement
- allows linear bone growth at epiphyseal plate in childhood => endochondral ossification
- reinforces respiratory passageways
- supports external nose
- ends of long bones, ribs, nose, trachea, larynx
462
elastic cartilage
highly flexible; withstands distortion without damage and reverts to its original shape
463
fibrous cartilage
- limits movement
- resists compression forces & stretch
- prevents direct contact between bones
464
tendons
anchor muscle to bone
465
ligaments
connect bones to other bones + stabilize and hold structures together
466
situations causing vasoconstriction
- decreased blood pressure -> activation of renin-angiotensin system -> increase blood pressure & volume
- exposure to cold temperature -> minimize heat loss diverting warm blood to body's core
- loss of blood (decreases blood volume & pressure) -> narrow vessel diameter and increase pressure of remaining blood
467
genetic drift
= natural variations in allele frequencies of a population due to RANDOM genetic changes that are NOT related to natural selection (e.g. sampling error, chance event, etc) -> effects are more significant in smaller populations
random disappearance of genotypes in the population
-> surviving population has decreased genetic diversity
-> surviving population reproduces & increases in number but still has less genetic diversity
468
stabilizing selection
phenotypes are narrowed toward an average, homozygous phenotype by selecting against extreme phenotypes
469
disruptive selection
selection of 2 extreme phenotypes that differ from the average (which is selected against the 2 extreme phenotypes)
470
adaptive radiation
process of diversifying characteristics in a subgroup of individuals from a single species -> reduces intraspecific competition -> improves fitness b/c subgroups has new role within an ecological community/nice that is different from the rest of the species
471
speciation
evolutionary process of forming a new species from a previously existing species => results in organisms that cannot interbreed with ancestral species
472
harmonic wavelength in a pipe closed at one end
lambda = (4*L)/n
n = odd number
473
standing sound waves
generated in pipes due to interference between incident waves & reflected waves moving in opposite directions in air tube
474
nodes
points of zero amplitude
475
antinode
points of max amplitude
476
calorimetry equation
heat gain or lost q = mc*delta T
477
in a reflected sound wave, ____ is reduced
intensity -> b/c energy of original wave is divided between reflected wave and transmitted wave
frequency, wavelength, and speed are unchanged because wave is still traveling in the original medium
478
energy of ejected electron in photoresister Ee
= Eph - Eb
Eph = energy of photon
Eb = binding energy
electrons only ejected from atom when Eph > Eb
479
when waves travel into a new medium, ___ and ____ increase
speed and wavelength
480
time to maximum height for object ejected upward
vf = vi + a*t
vf = 0 m/s at max height
a = -g
t = vi/g
481
capacitance in parallel circuit
C = sum of individual capacitors
482
capacitance in series circuit
1/C = sum of (individual capacitors)^-1
483
sound intensity I
= E/A*t = P/(4*pi*r^2)
inversely proportional to squared distance from source
484
incompressible fluid
density and volume do not change appreciably due to changes in pressure
485
viscosity
fluid's resistance to flow due to internal frictional forces; acts in opposite direction of flow
486
hydrostatic pressure
pressure exerted by the weight of a fluid is directly proportional to its depth
delta P = rho*g*delta h
487
parallel resistors
- voltage drop across each resistor is the same -> equal to that of voltage generated by battery
- equivalent resistance decreases if a resistor is added in parallel -> increases if a resistor is removed
- current through each resistor is independent of that through the other resistors
- total current = sum of the currents through each component
488
focal length of a spherical mirror
f = r/2
f = focal length
r = radius of curvature
point of focus = in front a concave mirror
point of focus = behind ca convex mirror
1/f = 1/o + 1/i
489
concave mirrors
- form an inverted, real image when reflected objected is outside of focal length
- form an upright, virtual image when reflected objected is inside of focal length
490
convex mirror
always form upright, virtual image
491
magnification (optics)
M = hi/h0
hi = image height
h0 = object height
lenses placed in series: Mtotal = PRODUCT of each lens' magnification
492
buoyant force
= density*V*g
m = density*V
493
delta displacement
= speed*time
494
if buoyant force is negative
object sinks downward
495
elastic force Fel
= -k*x
k = spring constant
Fel acts to oppose extension/compression and restore string back to equilibrium position
496
mechanical vs EM waves
mechanical waves (e.g. sound and water) travel through a medium (e.g. air)
EM waves are perturbations in electric and magnetic fields created by an oscillating motion of charges -> can propagate even when no medium is present (ie. vacuum)
497
flow rate
Q = A*v
continuity: A1*v1 = A2*v2
498
Pascal
Pa = N/m^2 = kg/m*s^2
N = kg*m/s^2
499
arterioles
- responsible for reducing the blood pressure from the major arteries (high blood pressure) to the capillary networks (low blood pressure)
- as a result, the arterioles are the primary pressure-reducing vascular region of the circulatory system.
500
photoelectric effect
describes ejection of electrons from a substance due to the absorption of EM radiation
E = KE + W
E = h*f
hf = (1/2)m*v^2 + W
W > hf: no e- ejected
W < hf: e- ejected at low velocity
W << hf: e- ejected at high velocity
501
reaction quotient
Q = [products]^coefficients/[reactants]^coefficients
502
covalent bonds are generally formed by electron
sharing between two atoms with a SMALL OR MODERATE electronegativity difference, usually between two nonmetals
polar = e- shared unequally
nonpolar = e- shared equally
503
ionic bonds are generally formed between
two atoms when the valence electrons from one atom are TRANSFERRED to another atom -> charged ions held together by strong electrostatic attractions
promoted by a LARGE difference in electronegativity, usually between a metal and a nonmetal
504
is ligand exchange a redox reaction?
NO! it occurs via a coordinate bond, but the oxidation numbers are unchanged
505
coordinate bonds
form by Lewis acid-base interaction: lone pair of e- occupying an orbital of an electron-rich atom in the ligand (ie Lewis base) plugs into a vacant orbital of an electron-deficient metal cation (ie Lewis acid) and the electrons are shared -> ligands retain possession of the shared electrons and can unplug from a complex and be exchanged for other ligands
formed between two atoms when both shared electrons are donated by the same atom
506
when a battery discharges, anode and cathode
anode oxidized
cathode reduced
507
change in standard Gibbs free energy associated w/ redox reaction
delta G = -n*F*Ecell
F = Faraday's constant
n= number of e- transferred per reaction
electrolytic -> nonspontaneous, positive delta G
galvanic -> spontaneous, negative delta G
Ecell = (E reduced, cathode) - (E reduced, anode)
508
E cell > 0
delta G < 0
spontaneous, favorable
galvanic cell
509
E cell < 0
delta G > 0
non-spontaneous, unfavorable
electrolytic cell
510
catalyst does ___ change the heat of the reaction
NOT
but changes the reaction rate, lowers activation energy by stabilizing the transition state of the reaction => less energetic transition state
511
strong base + strong acid forms
neutral salt
512
catalysts affect the reaction rate but do NOT change:
- equilibrium Keq
- enthalpy
- entropy
- temperature
- delta G
state functions = path independent
513
heterogenous catalyst
in a different phase than the reactants
-> usually solids interacting w/ reactants that are either liquids or gases
514
homogenous catalyst
in the same phase as the reactants
515
Arrhenius equation
k = A*e^(-Ea/R*T)
k = rate constant -> proportional to reaction rate
A = collision frequency
Ea = activation energy
R = gas constant = 8.314 J/mol*K
T = temperature (K)
516
collision theory
molecules must collide to react and these collisions must have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the activation energy of the reaction
517
closed system
only heat is exchanged, matter is NOT exchanged with the surroundings
518
open system
both heat and matter are freely exchanged w/ the surroundings
519
isolated system
neither heat nor matter can be exchanged with the surroundings
520
bond dissociation energy
highest for triple bond > double bond > single bond
increases with each additional pi bond (side-to-side overlap)
521
in metal complexes, the coordination number refers to
the number of coordinate bonds formed
522
formal charge
= (group valence) - (nonbonding eleclewitrons) - 0.5(bonding electrons)
523
far-IR spectroscopy
if a net change in a dipole is produced by a particular vibrational mode and is not cancelled out by another dipole in the molecule, the vibration is IR-active and will absorb IR light at particular light frequencies proportional to the frequency of the bond formation -> show different absorbance peaks attributed to these vibrational modes
524
electron orbitals
s = 1 orbitals = 2 e-
p = 3 orbitals = 6 e-
d = 5 orbitals = 10 e-
f = 7 orbitals = 14 e-
525
self-ionization constant Kw of water
Kw = Ka*Kb = 1.0*10^-14
pKw= pKa + pKb = 14
pKb = -log(Kb)
526
large Ka (> 1) indicates that
a reaction favors the products
- strong acids
527
small Ka (< 1) indicates that
a reaction favors the reactants and the ionization equilibrium favors the non-ionized HA reactant
- weak acids
528
ICE approximation
Kb = x^2/[A-] where x = [OH-] = [HA]
or
Ka = x^2/[HA] where x = [H+] = [A-]
529
disproportionation reaction
redox reaction in which both the oxidation and reduction occur to atoms of the same element
530
slope of the line segment between two species on a Frost diagram equals the
standard reduction potential 。E for the couple
531
oxidation state
(group valence) - (nonbonding electrons) - (assigned bonding electrons)
equal EN -> e- evenly divided
different EN -> all e- go to more EN atom
532
periodic trends for electronegativity
decreases moving down a group and increases going across a period from left to right
small electronegativity difference = small dipole moment (created by separation of partial charges across a polar covalent bond)
533
complex II of ETC
transport of e- from succinate to complex III:
1. e- from succinate transferred to FAD to produce FADH2 as succinate is oxidized to fumarate
2. FADH2 reoxidized to FAD when e- are shuttled to the iron-sulfur centers in complex III
3. ubiquinone (coenzyme Q) accepts e- from the iron-sulfur centers, becoming REDUCED to ubiquinol, which transports e- to complex III
534
short & medium chain free fatty acids are activated & oxidized in
mitochondria
535
long chain fatty acids must be linked to _____ to cross inner mitochondrial membrane
carnitine
536
oxidoreductases commonly use ____ as a source of e-
NADPH, NADH, FADH2
537
oxidoreductases
enzymes that catalyze redoc reactions
538
two of the most common mechanisms of two-substrate reactions
- Formation of a ternary complex: 3 molecules bound together (enzyme + 2 substrates) -> catalysis once all 3 molecules are bound and products are leased. Some ternary complexes form in a random order, some must form in a specific order
- Ping-pong mechanism: one substrate binds the enzyme first and reacts, CHANGING THE STRUCTURE of the enzyme -> this substrate leaves the active site -> second substrate enters and reacts, RESTORING ENZYME TO ORIGINAL form. Always ordered.
539
curve shape if no cooperativity
hyperbolic curves (follow Michaelis-Menten kinectics)
540
if a system is already at equilibrium so Keq = [products]/[reactants], addition of an enzyme
will NOT affect the net reaction rate (remain at zero)
541
glycogen is composed of
glucose monomers linked by alpha 1->4 glycosidic bonds (glycogen synthase) in linear segments and by alpha 1->6 glycosidic bonds at branch points (branching enzyme)
542
liver releases glucose from glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to
blood
(but skeletal muscle cannot release glucose from glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis into blood only b/c poor supply of glucose 6-phosphatase to convert G6P to glucose for release into blood)
543
what produces gluconeogenic precursors?
metabolites of glucose produced in glycolysis (ie pyruvate), or Krebs cycle (ie oxaloacetate), hydrolysis of triglycerides and proteins => glycerol (-> dihydroxyacetone P) and amino acids (-> oxaloacetate)
fatty acids are NOT gluconeogenic precursors
544
proton NMR spectroscopy and shielding
- frequency of hydrogen nuclei spinning in a magnetic field => chemical shift measured in ppm describes e- density surrounding a H+ within a molecule
- surrounded by high e- density: protons are shielded from magnetic field (ex: aliphatic protons) - upfield shift
- electronegative atoms draw e- density from nearby atoms & reduce e- density surrounding proton: protons are deshielded
shielded protons: right/upfield of NMR spectrum
deshielded protons: left/downfield of NMR spectrum
hydrophobic residues often associate to avoid contact w/ water => increases e- density around hydrophobic residues by shielding them from EN oxygen in water
545
ubiquitin
small protein that can be attached to other proteins as a molecular signal, usually linked to proteins through a Lys side chain
polyubiquitination: signal that targets proteins to the proteasome for degradation
546
cells increase the % of ____ fatty acids to ____ membrane fluidity at low temperatures
unsaturated; increase
547
citric acid cycle
combines oxaloacetate w/ acetyle-CoA to produce citrate
- provides energy needed for mitochondrial membrane potential -> NADH and FADH2 feed into ETC
548
localization of metabolic processes
citric acid cycle: mitochondria
gluconeogenesis: cytosol
549
enzyme of limiting step of gluconeogenesis
fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
550
enzyme of limiting step of glycolysis
phosphofrutokinase (PFK)
551
rank deoxyribonucleotides by molecular weight
G > A > T > C
552
which enzymes break down glycogen?
- glycogen phosphorylase: acts upon linear glycogen regions, catalyzing release of glucose residues from nonreducing ends
- debranching enzyme: linearizes branched regions
553
beta sheets
- networks of glutamine-mediated hydrogen bonds
- backbone carbonyl and NH groups of adjacent beta-strands form hydrogen bonds with each other
554
flexibility favorable for beta-turns
glycine
555
stacking interactions that can stabilize secondary structures occur between
aromatic side chains
556
protein aggregation occurs when
changes that cause a protein to misfold expose hydrophobic residues to the aqueous environment, and misfolded proteins group together to hide these exposed residues => decreased solubility of protein
557
parallel beta strands
run in same direction -> N-terminal portion of one strand aligns w/ N-terminal portions of the others
- may be linked by long loops that make 360 degree turns to align N-terminal regions of neighboring strands
558
antiparallel beta strands
individual strands run in directions opposite to each other -> N-terminal portion of one strand lines up w/ the C-terminal portion of neighboring strands
- linked by short sequence of amino acids = beta-turns that induce 180 degree bend in polypeptide chain
559
chaperone proteins
facilitate proper folding of other proteins
- bind hydrophobic regions of nascent, misfolded, or aggregated proteins -> prevent exposure of those regions to aqueous solvent, can block interactions between hydrophobic regions of separate polypeptides
560
steroid hormones synthesis
isoprene -> monoterpene (2 isoprene units) -> squalene (6 isoprene units) -> cholesterol (squalene arranged into ring)
=> synthesize bile salts, vit D, steroid hormoens
561
cluster A personality disorders
odd/eccentric:
- paranoid
- schizoid
- schizotypal
562
cluster B personality disorders
dramatic/emotional/erratic, intense emotional/relationship problems:
- antisocial
- borderline
- histrionic
- narcissistic
563
cluster C personality disorders
anxious/fearful/obsessive:
- avoidant
- dependent
- obsessive-compulsive
564
token economy
positively reinforces certain behaviors through the use of token -> secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for a desirable reward
565
secondary reinforcers
conditioned to be desirable such as money (vs primary reinforcers are naturally rewarding like food)
566
modeling
individual learns how to perform a behavior by watching someone else
567
world systems theory
core nations import resources from periphery nations and export goods
periphery nations export their resources to core nations
568
instinctive (instinctual) drift
animals trained to perform a specific behavior will often lose that behavior in favor of innate behaviors, even when reinforcement is present
- usually affects operant conditioning
- interferes with conditioning
569
normative organization
people voluntarily unite based on shared goals and/or values
570
utilitarian organization
members are compensated for their involvement typically through money or certification/diploma
571
McDonaldization of health care
extreme efficiency and rationalization produce negative consequences:
decreased individuality, quality, uniqueness, and skilled workforce
- efficiency
- calculability
- uniformity
- technological control
572
religiosity
extent to which a given religious doctrine is incorporated into all aspects of an individual's life, also how much a person internalizes a religion
573
anomie
state of normlessness that occurs when a society fails to provide individuals with norms and values to guide behavior
574
cultural relativism
evaluation of a society's norms and values in comparison to itself instead of in comparison to another society (opposite = ethnocentrism)
- evaluating cultural practices of a different society from that society's perspective instead of from one's own cultural perspective
575
malthusian theory
human population increases exponentially while resources increase at a slower rate - population growth rate can be slowed by preventative checks and positive checks
576
preventative checks ____ birth rate
decrease
577
positive checks ____ death rate
increase
578
malthusian catastrophe
large-scale positive check
579
types of norms/deviance
- folkways: least deviant, minor punishments, common rules/manners - e.g. opening door, saying thank you
- mores: more deviant, more serious punishment - e.g. truthfulness
- laws: formal consequences, right or wrong
- taboos: most deviant, most serious punishment, often punished, severed disgust by members of community - e.g. cannibalism, incest
580
content analysis
systematic coding and interpretation of human communication for research, turns qualitative visual or textual information into quantitative data
581
constancy
our perception that an object's characteristics remain stable even when the sensory input from that object changes due to alterations in the environment such as distance or lighting
- shape, color, brightness, size
582
Gestalt principles
emergence, multistability, subjective contours, invariance, closure (perceiving incomplete objects as complete), similarity (similar appearance objects perceived as single unit), proximity (objects close together perceived as single unit), continuity, common fate, symmetry
ways in which people's perceptual experience is organized results from how human brains are organized
-> perception as a holistic process guided by the global features of a stimulus
583
subjective contours
our mind fills in gaps - subjective contours of an object are perceived despite their contours not being explicitly shown
584
invariance
objects can be recognized despite alterations in orientation, lighting, scale, and slight alterations in component features
585
common fate principle
our perception that objects that move together are grouped together
586
similarity principle
objects sharing certain features are grouped together
587
bodily senses for spatial orientation and balance
- visual input
- vestibular input: vestibular organ within inner ear - semicircular canals and otolith organs (utricle and saccule)
- somatosensory input: proprioceptors in skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, and skin
588
linear perspective
parallel lines appear to converge in the distance
589
linear perspective
parallel lines appear to converge in the distance
590
interposition
overlapping objects create a sense of depth
591
light and shadow
patterns of light and shadow create the illusion of a 3D object
592
height in plane
lower objects appear closer within the visual plane than higher objects
593
relative size
closer objects appear larger than objects further away
594
texture gradients
closer objects will have coarser texture/more detail than distant objects
595
stereopsis
perception of depth that arises from the integrated information received from both eyes
596
elaboration encoding
new info is meaningfully associated w/ previously known info
597
elaboration likelihood model
message's persuasiveness based on how deeply or superficially it is processed and the characteristics of the audience
598
availability heuristic
tendency to judge how common or likely something is based on how easily it is recalled
599
associative learning
linking of two events or stimuli
600
long-term potentiation (LTP)
- enduring increase in synaptic transmission of neurons => learning and memory consolidation
- when neurons are repeatedly stimulated, they demonstrate an increased firing rate (= LTP)
- increase in magnitude of EPSPs in postsynaptic neurons reflects LTP
- occurs through increase in release of neurotransmitter by presynaptic neuron or increase in number of receptors in the postsynaptic neuron
601
tonic receptors
- only in PNS
- sensory receptors that continue to produce APs throughout the duration of the stimulus
602
retrograde amnesia
memory loss for events previously encoded
603
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories
604
cerebellum
motor learning, posture, coordination
605
occipital lobe
visual processing
606
parietal lobe
proprioception, somatosensation, spatial processing
607
temporal lobe
learning, memory, auditory processing, Wernicke
608
frontal lobe
executive functions, voluntary motor initiation, Broca, prefrontal
609
attributional biases
when people attempt to explain their own behavior or the behavior of someone else
610
actor-observer bias
attributional bias that describes tendency to attribute one's own actions to external factors but the actions of others to internal factors
611
fundamental attribution error
attributional bias that describes tendency to blame others' behavior on internal instead of external factors
612
self-serving bias
attributional bias when people credit their successes to internal factors but blame their failures on external factors
613
cognitive dissonance theory
cognitive dissonance (mental conflict) results from beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors that are contradictory or incompatible -> causes state of discomfort that results in motivation to reduce the conflict by aligning thoughts and/or behaviors
=> change attitudes or beliefs to match behavior to reduce discomfort
614
looking-glass self
- symbolic interactionist
- our interpretation of how we are perceived by others impacts our self-concept
- Charles Cooley: everyone a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity
- interpersonal interactions (what we IMAGINE the opinion of other people to be) develop our self-concept and sense of self
615
strain theory
when individuals are unable to attain socially acceptable goals through legitimate means, the resulting strain may lead to deviant behavior
=> increase in socially accepted means for social mobility would be associated with a decrease in social deviance
616
injury to a blood vessel resulting in bleeding indicates endothelium damage and triggers:
1. formation of platelet plug - platelets binds exposed collagen fibers and aggregate to form platelet plug that prevents blood flow out of vessel
2. strengthening of the clot - clotting factors mainly synthesized in the liver and induce processes that lead to the formation of the enzyme thrombin -> induce fibrin to form adhesive mesh-like structure over platelet plug
liver is the primary source of proteins critical for clotting and fibrinolysis
617
colon
absorb electrolytes and additional water from mass of undigested material -> concentrates into feces, which is stored into rectum for excretion
618
chyme
food moves from oral cavity to the stomach and passed on as chyme into the small intestine
- mixture of water, HCl, digestive enzymes, and nutrients from ingested food
619
small intestine
- brush border - covered by microvilli
- digest and absorb nutrients
- duodenum -> digest nutrients
- jejunum and ileum -> absorb nutrients
620
proteolytic enzymes
digest proteins
- stomach: pepsin
- pancreas: trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen
- brush border of small intestine: peptidase
621
transcription factors
bind specific DNA sequences and control the site of gene transcription
- transcribed in the nucleus
- translated in cytoplasm
- inactive = in cytoplasm
- during cell signaling, nuclear localization sequence in transcription factors allows nuclear import proteins to direct transcription factors back to the NUCLEUS via nuclear pores to alter gene expression
622
ELISA
detect and quantify proteins
1. antigen absorbed to well
direct:
2. primary antibody w/ reporter enzyme binds to antigen
indirect:
2. secondary antibody w/ reporter enzyme binds to primary antibody
3. substrate of reporter enzyme added
4. reaction product creates color range
color change intensity is proportional to amount of bound protein
623
prokaryotic vs eukaryotic cells
prokaryotic cells: bacteria, archaea
- 1-5 micrometers
- DNA: single circular chromosome, double-stranded, single origin of replication, haploid, no telomeres, in cytoplasm
- no membrane-bound organelles, cellular respiration in cytoplasm (aerobic & anaerobic), cell wall (peptidoglycan in bacteria)
- 70S ribosomes (50 S + 30S)
- binary fission
- no mechanism for intron splicing
eukaryotic cells: animals, plants, fungi
- 10-100 micrometers
- DNA: multiple linear chromosomes, double-stranded, multiple origins of replication, diploid or greater, telomeres, in nucleus
- membrane-bound organelles, cellular respiration in cytoplasm (anaerobic) & mitochondria (aerobic), cell wall (cellulose in plants & chitin in fungi)
- 80S ribosomes (60 S + 40S)
- mitosis (cell replication) & meiosis (gamete production)
624
RNA polymerases in eukaryotes
- RNA Polymerase I: rRNA transcription
- RNA Polymerase II: transcription of mRNA, some miRNAs, and some snRNAs
- RNA Polymerase III: transcription of tRNAs, some rRNAs, miRNAs, and snRNAs
625
regulation of respiratory rate is normally most sensitive to
PCO2 in the blood
H+ in equilibrium w/ CO2
CO2 + H2O <=> H2CO3 <=> HCO3- + H+
chemoreceptors in the brain and periphery indirectly respond to PCO2 in the blood and brain by sensing changes in [H+]
626
decreased gas exchange
CO2 builds up in blood
-> shifts equilibrium to the right
-> [H+] increased and pH decreases
= respiratory acidosis
-> restore balance of CO2 and H+ by increasing respiratory rate to blow off more CO2
-> shift equilibrium to the left, decreasing [H+] and increasing blood pH back to homeostatic levels
627
inhalation/inspiration
- diaphragm contracts
- increased intrapleural space, decreased intrapleural pressure
- rib cage elevates
- increased lung volume, decreased lung pressure
628
lymphatic system redistributes
interstitial fluid leaked from capillaries to the body
+ immune response and transport of fats absorbed by the digestive system to the bloodstream
629
parathyroid hormone effect on bone
parathyroid gland produce parathyroid hormone (PTH) -> controls plasma Ca2+ homeostasis
decreased plasma Ca2+ -> PTH released -> indirectly increases osteoclast activity (bone resorption/breakdown) and decreases bone mineralization
-> increased plasma Ca2+
-> negative feedback inhibits PTH secretion
increased plasma Ca2+ -> calcitonin release increased from thyroid gland
-> decreased osteoclast activity and decreased Ca2+ reabsorption in kidneys (increase renal excretion of Ca2+)
-> decreased plasma Ca2+
630
secondary hyperparathyroidism may result from
decreased synthesis of active vitamin D (calcitriol) in kidneys and decreased intestinal Ca2+ absorption in small intestine
=> DECREASED PLASMA Ca2+
-> EXCESSIVE PTH RELEASE from parathyroid glands to correct low plasma Ca2+
PTH increases activity of enzyme that catalyzes final step of conversion of inactive circulating vitamin D into its active form (calcitriol)
631
phosphatidylinositol 2nd messenger system
1. ligand binds to extracellular domain of receptor -> GDP bound to G-protein alpha subunit is released and GTP binds G protein
2. GTP-bound alpha subunit dissociates from beta and gamma subunits and activates phospholipase C (PLC)
3. PLC hydrolyzes PIP2 into IP3 and DAG
4. IP3 diffuses from cell membrane through cytoplasm to bind IP3 receptors on ER and mitochondria -> Ca2+ channels open -> Ca2+ released into cytoplasm and activate PKC
5. DAG diffuses within membrane and activates PKC
6. PKC phosphorylates downstream intracellular proteins => physiologic effects
632
bone marrow
give rise to most cells involved in immune response - multipotential hematopoeitic stem cells that can differentiate into lymphoid progenitor cells (B cells, T cells, natural killer cells) or myeloid progenitor cells (erythrocytes, platelet-producing megakaryocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, monocytes, mast cells)
- leukocytes
red: hematopoiesis (synthesize blood cellular components) - also at epiphysis of long bones
yellow: mostly fat, in central cavity of long bones
633
thymus
lymphoid structure, site of T lymphocyte maturation (T cells synthesized in bone marrow)
634
vasodilation
- parasympathetic
- increase vessel diameter and blood flow
- decrease blood pressure
635
vasoconstriction
- sympathetic
- decrease vessel diameter and blood flow
- increase blood pressure
636
frameshift mutations
result from insertion or deletion of a number of nucleotide base pairs NOT divisible by three -> reading frame changes -> multiple amino acid changes downstream of mutation
637
nonsense mutations
base pair substitution causes a premature stop codon to be inserted into a gene -> early termination of translation and production of a truncated protein
638
missense mutations
base pair substitution results in a codon that encodes a different amino acid -> substitution of the WT amino acid in the protein for a different, mutant amino acid
- may or may not affect protein function
639
silent mutations
mutation alters gene sequence and mRNA transcript but NOT the sequence of amino acids in the encoded protein
640
gram-positive stains
purple
641
order in which DNA passes by conjugation between two gram-negative bacteria
gram-negative bacterium w/ F plasmid (donor cell) -> pilus -> gram-negative bacterium lacking F plasmid (recipient cell)
642
mRNA levels of genes in the same operon are ___ correlated
positively
operon is a set of genes regulated together with the same operator and promoter
643
operon components
promoter (RNA polymerase binds), operator (repressor binds), genes controlled by the operon
644
presence presence of a plasmid garners survival characteristics to a bacterium like
antibiotic resistance
645
bacterial transformation
uptake of DNA (either linear fragment or plasmid) from a recipient's bacterium's extracellular fluid through membrane pores or transport proteins
get genetic info (DNA) from environment
646
long bones grows by
chondrocytes (cartilage-producing cells) dividing and producing collagen to which Ca2+ phosphate attaches to form hardened bone
- located at the interface between the long shaft (diaphysis) and the widened ends (epiphyses) of long bones => epiphyseal growth plate
647
rate law
rate = k*[A]^m[B]^n
A and B are reactants
For reactions involving two or more step, m and n must be DETERMINED EXPERIMENTALLY
648
reaction order (overall)
m + n where rate = k*[A]^m[B]^n
649
when reaction is irreversible (low temperature), reaction is under____ control
kinetic -> most favorable product is the one whose pathway has the lowest Ea -> fastest reaction and most product formed
650
when reaction is reversible (high temperature), reaction is under____ control
thermodynamic -> all products form readily and the most stable product is favored
651
increasing temperature shifts the reaction towards
reactants if exothermic (releases heat = product)
products if endothermic (absorbs heat = reactant)
652
chelate formation reaction
a metal cation and a ligand react to form one or more rings via a pincer-like coordinate bonding arrangement
653
anomeric carbon
two bonds to oxygen
654
aldoses
anomeric carbon = C1
ex: D-mannose
655
ketoses
anomeric carbon = C2
ex: D-fructose
656
constitutional isomers (aka structural isomers)
same molecular formula but different bond types/atom connectivity in at least one position (different connectivity between atoms)
657
sucrose
linked anomeric carbons (reducing ends) - can't participate in additional glycosidic bonds
658
upon saturating agonist conditions, which functional state describes the NMDAR conformation that has the lowest Gibbs free energy?
spontaneous events = negative delta G
free energy decreases with each spontaneous event
lowest free energy is found at the end of a spontaneous event or chain of events
659
heterotetrametric protein w/ identical heterodimer
Protein structure: AABB=500, where AABB is a heterotetrametric protein containing identical heterodimer units AA and BB. They're subunits of subunits
660
allostery
non-covalent binding at one location has an effect at a separate location
661
condensation reaction
two or more molecules combine to form a single larger molecule and released water during bond formation
662
the addition of an ________ would help increase the amount of disulfide bond formation and amount of dimerization
oxidizing agent
663
____ residues react with each other to form ____ bonds
Cystein; disulfide
664
the addition of a ________ would break disulfide bonds
reducing agent
665
acetyl-CoA units produced in odd-chain fatty acids
(total carbons - 3)/2
final 3 Cs converted into propionyl-CoA
666
acetyl-CoA units produced in even-chain fatty acids
total carbons/2
667
beta oxidation of unsaturated FAs
cis-bonds need to be isomerized to trans-bonds
668
fatty acid oxidation occurs in _____ and synthesis in _____
mitochondria; cytosol
669
vacuum distillation
- decreases a compound's boiling point under reduced pressure
- ideal for compounds with a boiling point over 150C to prevent degradation
- performed at reduced pressure = reduced boiling point
670
fractional distillation
- ideal for compounds with boiling points less than 25C apart
- more refined separation of liquids by boiling point
671
simple distillation
ideal for compounds with boiling points under 150C and are at least 25C apart
lower BP compound vapors condense and collected
- performed at atm pressure = unchanged BP
672
boiling chips
- introduce nucleation sites, which cause SMALL bubbles to form
- prevent superheating (when liquid is heated past its boiling point but doesn't boil)
- provide sites for bubble formation, overcoming the surface tension so liquid boils evenly
- only for small and fractional distillations, NOT vacuum (use stir bar)
673
rank boiling points: ethyl acetate, n-butanol, tert-butanol
ethyl acetate < n-butanol < tert-butanol
ethyl acetate: dipole-dipole (weaker IMF)
tert-butanol: H bonding (stronger IMF), branching (decreased surface area -> fewer London forces and decreased boiling point)
n-butanol: H bonding (stronger IMF), no branching (increased surface area)
674
aromatic compounds must have:
1. conjugated pi bonds in a cyclic structure
2. unhybridized p orbitals present in each atom in the ring
3. planar geometry, forming a continuous ring of parallel, overlapping unhybridized p orbitals
4. 4n + 2 pi electron!!!! (n is a non-negative integer)
675
degrees of unsaturation
max # of hydrogens = (# carbons x 2) + 2
-> for fully saturated molecule
degrees of unsaturation = (max # of H - # of H equivalents) x (degree of unsat./2 H)
676
in a 1H NMR spectrum, the area of a signal (integration) is proportional to the
of protons in the molecule that generate the signal
=> integration ratio of signals is proportional to the ratio of protons in the respective UNIQUE chemical environments
ex: four methyl groups - 3:3:3:3
2 methyl groups and one isopropyl group - 3:3:6
677
anistropy of aromatic rings causes the effective magnetic field and chemical shift to be
larger
anistropic effect: circulation of nearby pi electrons generates an induced magnetic field that either increases or decreases the effect of shielding
678
higher-order (e.g. tertiary) alkyl groups have ____ chemical shifts than lower-order (primary) alkyl groups
greater
679
inductive effect
influences the chemical shift through the donation or withdrawal of e- density in a sigma bond network
680
aromatic/conjugated core has a ___ HOMO-LUMO energy difference
smaller
when the carbon atoms in two or more alkene functional groups are directly connected to each other, the double bonds are CONJUGATED => more stable, lower energy, and have a smaller energy difference between HOMO and LUMO than isolated alkenes
conjugation decreases the energy of absorbed photons and increases the wavelength of max absorption
681
absorption and reflection spectra are ___ to each other
reciprocal
682
base peak in mass spectrometry
peak with highest abundance (100%) -> cation w/ greatest stability and/or relative rate of formation
683
what has the highest m/z value in mass sepctrometry?
molecular ion = radical cation with a mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) equal to the molecular weight of the molecule
684
mass spectrometry
measure mass of molecules and molecular fragments - only detects cations
electron-impact mass spectrometer: bombards sample w/ electrons to remove an e- from a molecule (ionization) and create the molecular ion M+ -> can also break into a radical and a cation to produce smaller molecular fragments
- peaks described by their mass difference from M+ peak, where magnitude of m/z difference can indicate the atom(s) lost during fragmentation - represent ionized fragments of the sample
M-15 peak = loss of methyl group
M-1 = loss of hydrogen radical from group
685
m/z
(M of uncharged molecule + M of H+ added)/z
z = charge of ion
686
carboxylic acid reacted w/ NaOH in an organic solvent followed by a reaction with an acid chloride produces
anhydride
carboxylic acid + NaOH -> carboxylate + acid chloride + Na+ + H2O -> tetrahedral intermediate -> anhydride + NaCl
687
acid chloride + alcohol or carboxylic acid + alcohol produces
ester
688
anhydrides are derived from
condensation of two carboxylic acids or nucleophilic acyl substitution of an acid chloride with a carboxylate
689
alcohol is a ____ leaving group
poor; weak electrophiles and hydroxide has no resonance stabilization
can become better leaving group if converted to mesylate - mesylate anion has resonance stabilization or if protonated to create a strong electrophile and good leaving group in the form of H2O
can also become good leaving group if acid is added to protonate alcohol (leave as H2O instead of OH-)
690
lactonization
intramolecular Fischer esterification between carboxylic acid + alcohol within same molecule -> cyclic ester (lactone)
691
lactamization
carboxylic acid + amine -> cyclic amide (lactam)
692
protection of one alcohol as a silyl ether
leaves the only other alcohol available for the acylation in the next step, allowing a regioselective outcome
693
stereoselective reaction
results in the preferential formation of a stereoisomer
ex: reaction that prefers either a cis or trans outcome
694
regioselective reaction
results in the preferential reaction at one location within a molecule, often resulting in constitutional isomers
695
butanoic acid
carboxylic acid with four carbons
696
impact of alpha-methyl groups on nucleophilic attack
one alpha methyl group (vs. two alpha methyl groups) makes the ester LESS STERICALLY HINDERED to nucleophilic attack
=> faster rate of hydrolysis
697
esterification vs ester hydrolysis
esterification: condensation reaction that results in the loss of H2O to form ester from carboxylic acid + alcohol
ester hydrolysis: H2O consumed to cleave C-O in an ester
698
as the number of alkyl substituents increases, carbocation stability _____ and carbanion stability ______
carbocation stability increases and carbanion stability decreases
- tertiary carbocations are most stable (vs methyl and primary)
- methyl and primary carbanions are most stable (vs tertiary)
alkyl groups are e- donating so stabilize carbocations (less reactive) and destabilize carbanions (more reactive)
699
extraction
hydrophobic molecules have greater affinity for nonpolar organic layer
densest solvent is always the lowest layer
700
acylation reaction between anhydride and amide
generates amide and carboxylic acid
amides and carboxylic acids can be separated by extraction
- long carboxylic acids can be induced to enter aqueous layer if converted to ionic salt via deprotonation by strong or weak base and amide remains in organic layer
701
dilution factor (DF)
= Vf/Vt
Vf = final volume of dilute solution
Vt = volume of solute solution transferred
multiple DF of all the steps to yield overall DF
702
spin-spin splitting of peaks in 1H NMR spectrum
number of peaks = N + 1
where N is the number of nonequivalent protons on ADJACENT carbon atoms
703
E/Z designation for alkene is possible only if
each half of the alkene contains different functional groups
704
formation of imine intermediate in Strecker synthesis by
aldehyde and ammonia
ketones & aldehydes react w/ NH3 or primary amines to form imines - Strecker synthesis is used to make alpha-amino acids from aldehydes using NH3 and KCN
705
aldehyde/ketone + secondary amine form
enamine
acid-catalyzed addition of amine followed by an acid-catalyzed dehydration
706
aldehyde/letone + primary amine form (ammonia)
imine
707
SN1 reaction
Step 1: leaving group leaves spontaneously, forming a (carbo)cation
Step 2: nucleophile attacks the carbocation
NOT stereospecific
CANNOT have tertiary electrophile
708
SN2 reaction
Single step: nucleophile attacks and leaving group leaves simultaneously
709
transesterification
reaction between an ESTER and an ALCOHOL that results in an EXCHANGE of alkoxy and alcohol R groups
710
aldol condensation
C-C bond forming reaction requiring two carbonyl compounds (ketones and/or aldehydes) -> forms an alpha, beta-unsaturated carbonyl compound (aldol product)
- two carbonyl substrates required -> alpha-carbon of compound 1 is deprotonated when base is added
-> intermediate stabilized through resonance (enolate)
-> nucleophilic enolate attacks carbonyl of compound 2
-> -OH elimination to give conjugated product
711
saponification
removal of an alkoxy group from an ester by a base -> forms a carboxylic acid and an alcohol
hydrolysis of an ester with a strong base
712
boiling points ranking by functional groups
carboxylic acids > alcohols > aldehydes and ketones > alkanes
713
chromatography separates molecules based on their
relative affinities for a stationary phase vs a mobile phase
-> for compounds to separate efficiently on any column, they need sufficient time to interact with the stationary phase
714
factors that increase acidity
- negative charge on electronegative atom
- resonance in conjugate base (charge distribution) = ability to stabilize negative charge in corresponding conjugate base
715
functional group acidity ranking
alcohol > ketone > sp2 C-H (alkene) > sp3 C-H (alkane)
716
when carbon atoms are oxidized,
they lose bonds to hydrogen and/or gain bonds to oxygen
=> oxidizing agents convert primary alcohols to aldehydes and carboxylic acids, and secondary alcohols to ketones
717
tertiary alcohols ____ oxidized
cannot be
tertiary carbon atoms have NO BONDS TO HYDROGENS -> no bonds to H can be lost but if gains bonds to oxygen, C would be bound to 5 atoms (not possible)
tertiary alcohols are in their highest possible oxidation state
718
function of the nonpolar organic solvent in extraction is to
remove hydrophobic molecules from the aqueous layer
"like dissolves like" - molecules will dissolve in a solvent of the same polarity
719
max magnitude of static friction Fs
= normal force*coefficient of static friction
720
Doppler effect
the wave period measured by an observer depends on the relative motion of the source creating the wave (eg sound) and the observer
observer and source emitting waves of period T0 move TOWARD each other: observed wave period Tobs < T0 (because source moved closer to observer and measured time between emitted wave crests is reduced)
- decreased wavelength and increased frequency
observer and source emitting waves of period T0 move AWAY from each other: Tobs > T0 because the waves emitted from the source travel a longer distance to the observer
721
time for a vertical jump
t = 2v/g
722
force on a charge moving in a magnetic field and work done by F on an object
F = q*v*B*sin(theta)
F = Lorentz force
q = charge
v = speed of charge
B = magnetic field
theta = angle between B and v
F is perpendicular to the direction of v and the direction of B => right-hand rule
W = F*d*cos(theta) = 0 because theta = 90 degrees always since F is always perpendicular to v
723
decibel dB =
10*log(I1/I2)
I1 = sound intensity 1
I2 = sound intensity 2
-20 dB = x0.01 intensity
-10 dB = x0.1 intensity
0 decibel = x1 intensity
+10 dB = x10 intensity
+20 dB = x100 intensity
724
gas to liquid phase change
condensation
725
gas to solid phase change
deposition
726
cutoff frequency of an RC circuit
f = 1/(2pi*R*Ceq)
727
open pipe wavelength and frequency
lambda = 2*L/n
f = nv/2L
728
work done (PV loop in cardiac cycle)
= delta P * delta V
look at PV loop area
729
why does thin-film interference generate a multicolored array when two semitransparent fluids are used?
the thickness of the top fluid varies along the fluid interface
=> light waves of a specific wavelength (ie color) that interfere constructively or destructively at one film thickness may no longer interfere in the same way at a different thickness
+ also surface tension and other effects that locally distort fluid surface
730
transverse waves
oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of propagation
e.g. spring, EM waves, water wave
731
longitudinal waves
displace the medium in a direction parallel to the direction of the wave's propagation
e.g. sound waves, springs
732
sound waves
- pressure waves
- longitudinal
- vibrations create oscillations of compression (high pressure) and refraction (low pressure)
- propagates through vibrations of molecules in a medium
- damped/attenuated the most in soft materials due to absorption and scattering and also inversely to distance
- speed is slowest in gases, fastest in solids
- cannot propagate through a vacuum
733
positive frequency shift
observed frequency > original frequency
each successive wave is reflected closer - source is moving closer
734
negative frequency shift
observed frequency < original frequency
each successive wave is reflected farther - source is moving away
735
frequency shift (Doppler effect)
(delta f)/f = v/c
v = relative velocity between source and observer
c = speed of wave in medium
736
energy in a capacitor U
U = (1/2)(C*V^2)
737
electric power P
= IV = (I^2)*R = (V^2)/R
738
circular polarization occurs when two transverse wave are out of phase to one another with a phase difference of _____ degrees
90
two wave forms must be of equal amplitude and perpendicular linear polarization
739
mitosis
1. Prophase: DNA condenses to form chromatids. Each pair of sister chromatids joined by centromere to form chromosomes. Nuclear envelope breaks down and centrosomes migrate to opposite poles. Mitotic spindle is formed as microtubules grow from these centromeres
2. Metaphase: chromosomes attach to spindle fiber microtubules at their kinetochores and align at the metaphase plate
3. Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled apart by their spindle fibers and move toward opposite poles of the cell => forms two sets of chromosomes within the cell
4. Telophase: nuclear envelope is reformed around each set of chromosomes. Chromosomes decondense and the parental cell undergoes cytokinesis to produce two identical daughter cells
740
difference between bacteria and archaea
archaea do NOT have peptidoglycan in their cell wall
741
convergent evolution
when distantly related organisms become more alike by evolving similar traits in an independent manner due to similar needs
742
when the sperm reaches the zona pellucida during fertilization, the acrosome reaction is triggered => cortical reaction is triggered, which
blocks polyspermy = preventing more than one sperm from entering oocyte
743
steps of fertilization (when sperm reaches oocyte)
1. sperm reaches oocyte: sperm weaves past follicular cells of corona radiata
2. sperm contact: sperm binds receptors in zona pellucida (matrix of glycoproteins surrounding oocyte)
3. acrosome reaction: acrosome is a specialized vesicle filled w/ hydrolytic enzymes (in sperm head) -> enzymes released and zona pellucida degraded to enable sperm to reach oocyte's plasma membrane
4. fusion: plasma membraned of oocyte and sperm are fused
5. sperm contents enter oocyte: nucleus, mitochondria, and pair of centrioles enter oocyte
6. cortical reaction: contents of cortical granules in oocyte are released into space between plasma membrane and zona pellucida, fusing w/ plasma membrane => hardens zona pellucida into protective envelope -> block additional sperm from entering
744
spleen
filters blood, stores erythrocytes, destroys old erthryoctes
745
lymph nodes
- monitor lymph for antigens and activate lymphocytes upon antigen detection
746
high concentrations of self-antibodies are not typically found in human body because
B cells and T cells that recognize self-antigens are destroyed
747
anterograde transport: kinesin transports intracellular cargo along microtubules ____ cell body
away from
748
retrograde transport: dynein transports intracellular cargo along microtubules ____ cell body
toward
749
innate immune cells vs adaptive immune cells
both originate from bone marrow stem cells and express MHC proteins
innate: immediate response, respond to MANY TYPES of antigens & signals of cellular stress, generally similar with each subsequent infection
adaptive: several days to respond, respond to only a SINGLE TYPE of antigen, more enhanced with each subsequent infection due to memory B & T cells
750
Leydig cell
secretes testosterone
751
Sertoli cell
supplies nutrients to developing sperm
752
spermatogonium
divides to form mature sperm
753
spermatozoon
mature sperm
754
spermatogenesis
spermatogonia -> primary spermatocyte -> secondary spermatocyte -> spermatids -> spermatozoa
755
plasma components
- electrolytes
- water
- respiratory gases
- hormones
- nutrients
- metabolic waste
- blood proteins: e.g. albumin
756
total activity of a protein
= total protein mass x specific activity
757
protein specific activity
- protein purity
- activity of desired protein/total mass of protein obtained in purification step
- increases as unwanted protein is removed
758
nucleic acid synthesis
3' hydroxyl group of the growing chain acts as a nucleophile and attacks the 5' alpha-phosphate of the incoming nucleotide
759
a 3'->5' exonuclease that does not have 5'->3' exonuclease activity can only repair errors at the ___ end of the growing strand
3'
760
proline is unique in that it is the only AA that
contains a secondary amine in its backbone
= two bonds to carbon
761
denaturation indications
- high temperature
- urea
- low enzymatic activity
762
ubiquitination
ATP-dependent process in which ubiquitin molecules are added to a protein substrate -> proteasome recognizes the ubiquitinated protein and degrades it to small peptides via proteolysis
763
Vmax is directly proportional to
[E]
Vmax = Kcat*[E]
764
D-sugars
enantiomers: second-to-last carbon (C5 in glucose) has oxygen atom to its right
epimers: OH to right of C2, left of C3, and right of C4 in glucose
anomers: OH to right of anomeric carbon = alpha, OH to left of anomeric carbon = beta
765
zero-order reactions
rate is independent of [S]
Km << [S] = saturated
766
first-order reactions
rate is dependent on [S]
Km > [S]
767
Chargaff's rule
1. Purines = Pyrimidines (A = T and G = C)
2. Sum of purines = sum of pyrimidines (A + G = T + C)
768
mirror neurons fire while
observing and performing a behavior
- observational learning
769
retroactive interference
when more recently learned information interferes with the learning of older information
770
proactive interference
when older information interferes with the recall of newer information
771
a distorted and unstable self-image is characteristic of
borderline personality disorder
772
PTSD symptoms
- hyperarousal (insomnia, exaggerated startle response)
- intrusive symptoms (nightmares, flashbacks)
- avoiding reminders of trauma
- negative thoughts and moods
773
demographic transition model
1. preindustrial: high birth and death rates + slow population growth
2. newly industrialized: death rates drop as food/medicine availability and sanitation increase + rapid population growth
3. urbanized: population continues to grow + birth rates begin to decline as access to contraception increases + death rates still falling due to fewer childhood deaths
4. developed: low birth and death rates + slow population growth
5. highly developed: very low birth rates + population may decline
774
neuroleptic drugs treat ____ symptoms of Schizophrenia but may worsen ___ symptoms
positive; negative
775
weak acid + strong base forms
basic salts
776
strong acid + weak base forms
acidic salt
777
strong acid + strong base forms
neutral salt
778
weak acid + strong base forms
basic salt
779
weak acid + strong base forms
basic salt
780
neuroleptic drugs treat ____ symptoms of Schizophrenia, but may worsen _____ symptoms
positive; negative
781
effective nuclear charge (Zeff)
Measure of amount of charge from nucleus that an atom or ion exerts electrostatic attraction on its valence electrons. Core electrons partially shield the valence e- from the nuclear charge, so the nuclear charge experienced by valence e- is typically LESS than the total charge of the nucleus.
Zeff = Z - S
Z = total charge of nucleus (ie total # of protons)
S = shielding constant = # of core e- in the atom or ion
782
branched structures experience ____ London force interactions than comparable straight-chain molecules
fewer
783
latent heat of vaporization
the amount of heat 1 mole of a substance must absorb to transition from liquid phase to gas phase while maintaining constant temperature
784
complex ions
central metal ion surrounded by one or more ions or molecules (ligands) that are bound to the metal center by coordinate bonds -> ligands surrounding metal center act as Rs and donate lone pair of e- to the metal center, which acts as a Lewis acid -> Lewis acid-base coordinations hold the complex together
stronger Lewis bases can displace weaker Lewis bases as ligands within the complex
strong Lewis acids:
- lower EN
- more lone pairs
- charged
785
during ionization, electrons are removed from the valence e- shell with the ____ principal quantum number (n) first
greatest - because these electrons are farthest from the nucleus and are the least tightly bound
786
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
the exact position and momentum of a particle cannot both be known at the same time
=> the uncertainty of position and momentum is INVERSELY proportional
787
dsp3 hybridization molecular geometry
trigonal bipyramidal
5 electron domains, no lone pairs
788
octahedral
no lone pairs, 6 electron domains around a d2sp3 hybridized central atom
bonding arrangement of AX6
789
square planar
two lone pairs, 6 electron domains around a d2sp3 hybridized central atom
790
representative elements
= main group elements
- groups 1-2 and 13-18
- s-block and p-block
791
buffering range
lies within one pH unit of the pKa
792
zeroth law of thermodynamics
if two systems are in thermal equilibrium and one of those systems is also in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then all three systems must be in thermal equilibrium with each other
793
immune cell assisted by helper T cell
- B lymphocyte: Helper T cell promotes B lymphocyte activation and proliferation, induces differentiation of B lymphocytes in antibody-secreting plasma cells and memory cells
- cytotoxic T cell: Helper T cell promotes activation and proliferation
- macrophage: Helper T cell enhances activity of macrophages
- other immune cells: Helper T cell attracts other immune cells to site of infection
794
muscle contraction
1. when muscle is at rest, myosin is bound to ADP and Pi (high-energy conformation) and actin filaments are bound by tropomyosin and troponin
2. depolarizing stimulus -> Ca2+ released from SR into cytosol -> Ca2+ bind troponin -> pulls on tropomyosin and exposes myosin binding sites on actin
3. myosin head binds strongly to actin filament, forming a cross-bridge
4. dissociation of Pi initiates a power stroke -> myosin head drags actin filament toward center of sarcomere -> shortening of the sarcomere -> release of ADP from myosin head occurs at the end of the power stroke
5. new ATP binds myosin head and cross-bridge disassembles
6. ATP hydrolysis allows myosin head to shift back into upright, high-energy conformation to prepare for a new cycle of contraction
7. cycle of cross-bridge formation and disassembly continues until motor neuron signaling ceases and Ca2+ is sequestered back into SR
795
bulbourethral glands
mucus secretion, alkaline and lubricates tip of penis to neutralize acids in the urine and protect sperm from acidic environment of the urethra
796
epididymis
sperm maturation and storage
797
cells of the _____ contribute to low water loss through the epidermis
stratum corneum
798
three major layers of skin
epidermis: outermost skin layer composed of epithelial tissue
- stratum corneum (most superficial)
- stratum lucidum (only in thick skin of palms and foot soles)
- stratum granulosum
- stratum spinosum
- stratum basale
dermis: connective tissue and contains sensory receptors, blood vessels, hair follicles, and sweat and sebaceous glands
- papillary dermis contributes to skin flexibility
- reticular dermins contributes to skin strength
hypodermis: adipose tissue - insulation and shock absorption
- skin strength and flexibility
- provides protection
799
do viruses have phospholipid bilayer?
enveloped or naked/nonenveloped:
- enveloped viruses have a phospholipid bilayer, generally derived from cell membrane of the host
- naked viruses lack a phospholipid bilayer
800
endothelial cells
- specialized epithelial cells that line the interior of the cardiovascular system (eg. blood vessels)
e
801
epithelial cells
skin, secretory components of glands, and lining of inner cavities of the body
802
neuromuscular junction (NMJ)
- interface between a somatic motor neuron and a skeletal muscle fiber
- converts motor neuron action potentials into muscle fiber APs
803
the sympathetic nervous system increases blood pressure in response to stress by
- norepinephrine promoting vasoconstriction of blood vessels (raises BP)
- activate renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in kidneys -> promote vasoconstriction + increase BP
- increasing antidiuretic hormone (ADH) -> increase reabsorption of water in kidneys + promote vasoconstriction
804
northern blot vs southern blot vs DNA sequencing
Northern blot: detects particular RNA sequence = assess gene expression
Southern blot: detects particular DNA sequence
=> DNA has to be expressed ultimately in the form of proteins in order to be considered "gene expression", so it CANNOT analyze gene expression
DNA sequencing: determines nucleotide sequence of DNA
only Southern blot and DNA sequencing can be used to determine relative gene count
805
estrogen and progesterone withdrawal (eg. removal of ovaries)
- irritability, fatigue, anxiety
- breast atrophy
- infertility
- decreased bone density
806
estrogen & progesterone promote:
- breast development + other secondary sex characteristics (estrogen)
- fertility (estrogen & progesterone)
- bone mass maintenance (estrogen)
807
ovaries
female gonads that produce gametes (oocytes) and secrete female sex hormones
808
fallopian tubes
duct structures lined with motile cilia that transfer the ovulated oocyte from the abdominal cavity toward the uterus + primary site of fertilization
809
muscle types
skeletal:
- multinucleated, striated, bunched fibers
- attach to bone via tendons
- aids circulation by squeezing vessels
- heat production
- no gap junctions
- voluntary movement
- somatic nervous system (ACh)
cardiac:
- branched, striated, uninucleated
- heart walls and pump blood through circulatory system
- gap junctions
- involuntary
- myogenic
- autonomic nervous system
- intercalated discs
smooth:
- bunched, non-striated, uninucleated
- line hollow visceral organs and promote substance movement
- line blood vessels and affects blood pressure
- gap junctions
- no sarcomere
- involuntary
- myogenic
- autonomic nervous system
810
___ molecule does NOT rotate plane-polarized light
symmetrical/achiral
811
Gabrial and Strecker synthesis produce
product: racemic mixture of L- and D- amino acids
because intermediate formed during the reaction is planar (no stereocenters), nucleophilic addition can occur from either above or below the plane
812
tertiary alkyl halides undergo SN1 reactions ___ readily than less substituted alkyl halides
more fast
because tertiary alkyl halides form a more stable carbocation
813
tertiary alkyl halides are ____ in an SN2 reaction
unreactive because they are more sterically hindered, preventing nucleophilic attack and the breaking of the leaving group-carbon bond in one step
814
nucleophiles ___ electrons to electrophiles in nucleophilic substitutions
donate
815
as the electronegativity of a negatively charged atom decreases from right to left across a period on the periodic table, its nucleophilicity ____
increases
less EN atoms stabilize a negative charge less effectively, have a weaker hold on electrons, and more readily donate electrons to an electrohpile
816
decreasing steric hindrance <-> ____ nucleophilicity
increasing
817
inductive effect
- occurs with the donation of e- density through sigma bonds
- EN atoms or electron withdrawing groups (EWG) pull e- away from an adjacent atom, creating a dipole with a partial negative charge on the EN atom and a partial positive charge on the adjacent atom
=> destabilize carbocations by putting two positive charges next to each other
more EN -> pull more e- density away from carbonyl carbon -> creates greater dipole -> better LG ==> greater inductive effect
818
electron donating groups ____ carbocations
stabilize
because they donate e- toward the positively charged carbon, creating a partial negative charge next to the carbocation
819
chiral molecules are optically ____ and rotate plane-polarized light
active
820
hydrogen atom acidity
amine H < aromatic H < alpha-H
821
retro-aldol reaction
reverse of aldol condensation
dehydration product (enal or enone) heated and treated with aqueous base
-> aldol product
-> C-C between alpha- and beta-carbons breaks
-> ketone + aldehyde
OR two ketones
OR two aldehydes
822
fischer esterification of waxes
forms new ester linkage between long-chain fatty acid and long-chain alcohol
acid catalyst and heat, condensation reaction that eliminates a H2O molecules
823
fischer esterification
carboxylic acid derivatives formed under acidic conditions using a carboxylic acid and an alcohol
- ester oxygen atom bonded to the carbonyl carbon and the alkyl group always originates from the alcohol reagent
824
reversed-phase chromatography: ____ stationary phase and ___ mobile phase
nonpolar stationary phase
polar mobile phase
=> nonpolar solutes have higher affinity for stationary phase and polar solutes move faster
825
DNA extraction
use immiscible solvents (organic solvent and aqueous solution) to separate DNA in a mixture based on differences in solubility
DNA in water
-> ethanol breaks hydration shell and Na+ neutralizes charge (Na+ form ionic bonds w/ DNA)
-> DNA less hydrophilic and decrease its affinity for its aqueous solvent
-> DNA precipitates
826
in normal-phase HPLC, the stationary phase is ___ relative to the mobile phase
polar
827
why is the pKa value of the alpha-amine is lower than the pKa of the side chain amine (example Lysine)
alpha-carboxylate withdraws electrons from the alpha-amine due to the inductive effect
- side chain amine is farther from carboxylate and less effected by inductive effect
828
polarity order
nonpolar to polar:
alkane
ester
alcohol
carboxylic acid
829
an electrophilic carbon undergoes ___ of stereochemistry in an SN2 reaction
inversion (only at the carbon that is attacked by the nucleophile)
830
___ equivalent(s) of NaOH is needed to hydrolyze each ester
1
triacylglycerol has 3 ester linkages that can be hydrolyzed (so need 3 NaOH to completely hydrolyze)
831
multiple peaks with the same m/z in the mass spectrum of an unsaturated molecule could correspond to
cis/trans isomers
832
steroids
- nonhydrolyzable lipids
squalene (six isoprene units, triterpene) -> cholesterol (four infused hydrocarbon rings)
833
pentose phosphate pathway enzymes
- glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (rate-limiting)
- 6-phosphogluconate denhydrogenase
NADP+ to NADPH
glucose-6-phosophate -> 6-phosphogluconate -> ribulose-5-phosphate
-> ribose-5-phosphate
-> fructose-6-phosphate
-> glycolysis
834
cation exchange column
- beads are negatively charged and bind cations
- low pI peptides (negatively charged) elute first
peptide pI > pH: positively charged, bind to column
as pH increases beyond pI, peptide becomes negatively charged and will elute
835
in size-exclusion (aka gel filtration) chromatography, ___ molecules elute first
larger
small molecules travel through all the pores so move slower
836
proteases have specificity for ___-amino acids
L
since amino acids are most frequently found in the L-conformation in nature
837
electron transport chain (ETC)
complex I: receive pair of e- from NADH -> passed through redox centers -> ubiquinone reduced to ubiquinol
- NADH: ubiquinone oxioreductase
complex II: receive pair of e- from FADH2 -> reduce ubiquinone to ubiquinol
- FADH2: succinate dehydrogenase
complex III: receive e- from ubiquinol and transfers them to cyt c (two cyt c reduced for every pair of e- received)
- ubiquinol-cytochrome c oxioreductase
complex IV: receive e- from cyt c and transfer them to O2
- cytochrome c oxidase
838
cofactor regenerated by lactate synthesis (pyruvate -> lactate)
NAD+
839
starch digestion
starch -> startch shortened by 1 glucose subunit + glucose
enzyme: amylase
840
amino acids except for ___ and ____ can be converted into glucose through gluconeogenesis
leucine and lysine
841
transport and activation of long-chain fatty acids in the mitochondria requires
ATP, CoA, and Carnitine
842
native PAGE vs SDS-PAGE
native PAGE separates proteins by charge and mass without denaturing
SDS-PAGE separates proteins only on the basis of mass - SDS denatures
843
hydrolysis of a glycerophospholipid produces ___ fatty acids for every glycerol molecule produced
two
glycerophospholipid: glycerol backbone bound to a phosphate group through a phosphoester bond and to two fatty acids through ester bonds
844
investment phase of glycolysis
first five reactions
845
first step of glycogenolysis
glycogen -> glucose 1-phosphate + glycogen (glycogen phosphorylase)
846
1 Joule (J) =
N*m
847
shock wave ultrasound
uses high-frequency waves to cause destructive, high-amplitude vibrations within target structures -> for max effectiveness, frequency of the shock waves should match the resonance frequency of the target structure
848
sound propagates the fastest in ___ and slowest in ____ going from air to tympanic membrane
solid (fastest)
liquid (faster)
gas (slowest)
when sound crosses from one medium to another, a portion of the wave's energy is reflected => sound waves lose energy (attenuated) and their intensity decreases when passing from air to a solid structure
849
resonant frequency
causes relatively large oscillations compared to other frequencies
= standing waves
850
propagation velocity of sound waves depend only on the ____
properties of the medium
851
when the distance of the object is greater than the focal length, concave mirror form ___ images
real
852
convex mirror always form ___ images
virtual
853
radius of curvature R of a spherical mirror
R = 2*f
854
osmotic pressure causes fluid to migrate from regions of ___ osmotic pressure to regions of ____ osmotic pressure
lower to higher
855
hydrostatic pressure causes fluid to migrate from regions of ___ hydrostatic pressure to regions of ____ hydrostatic pressure
higher to lower
856
1 atm = ___ mmHg
= ___ torr
= ___ kPa
760 mmHg
760 torr
101.3 kPa
857
pressure differential generated by heart pump
delta P = CO x VR
CO = cardiac output
VR = vascular resistance
blood pressure = CO x VR
858
volumetric flow rate of blood throughout circulatory system = cardiac output =
volume of blood pumped by heart every minute
CO = (stroke volume)x(heart rate) = SV x HR
stroke volume: volume of blood ejected from left ventricle in one cardiac cycle -> on a cardiac PV loop, LV volume decreasing
859
pressure applied by pump
P = F/A
860
electromagnetic spectrum from highest to lowest energy & frequency
gamma
x-ray
UV
visible light
IR
microwave
radio
861
longer wavelength = ___ refraction
less
862
image and object distance
1/f = 1/o + 1/i
o = object distance
i = image distance
863
thermal expansion of the length L or volume V of a substance
delta L = alpha*L*delta T
delta V = alpha*V*delta T
864
sublimation
solid -> gas
865
ideal fluid
- no viscosity: no tendency to resist flow (no friction present between fluid molecules)
- laminar flow: smooth flow in layers, fluid elements travel in straight lines
- incomprehensible: uniform density
866
features of bureacracy
- division of labor
- hierarchical organization
- rules and regulations
- impersonal
- employment based on qualifications
867
dyadic relationships
interaction between two people
868
manifest functions
intended consequences of a social structure
ex: media (social structure) is meant to disseminate information
manifest = intended
869
neuroimaging methods
structures:
- CT: detailed structure of internal organs and tissues at a single point in time (multiple x-rays taken at different angles)
- MRI
function:
- EEG: voltage fluctuations in the brain over time, external, can't tell us about activity of individual neurons - seizures, sleep stage, etc
structure + function
- fMRI: changes in blood oxygenation in the brain over time
- PET: changes in glucose metabolism in the brain over time (radioactive tracer)
870
latent functions
unintended result of a social structure
871
Mead theory of identity development (social self)
social behaviorism - mind and self emerge through process of communicating with others (beginning of symbolic interactionism)
preparatory stage: infant, toddler -> imitation, often lacks understanding - "I"
play stage: preschool age -> role-taking, understanding perspectives of others - "I" developed and "Me" starting
game: school age -> generalized other (society as a whole): understanding all roles and overarching rules - "Me" further developed
Essentially:
I = spontaneous, and autonomous less socialized component of self, response of the individual to the "me" - attitudes of others
Me = socialized and conforming aspect of self, how individual believes generalized other perceives it, social self
872
source monitoring error
inaccurately remembering the source of information
873
negative priming
impaired processing that occurs when a stimulus is initially ignored and then later attended to
874
corpus callosum
bundle of unmyelinated axonal projections connecting the right and left hemispheres of the brain, allowing the two hemispheres to communicate
875
cultural diffusion
- spread of beliefs and behaviors from one cultural group to another
- between out-groups
876
cultural transmission
- passing of knowledge and values to the next generation
- within in-groups
- education, socialization
877
stimulants
- amphetamines, cocaine
- speed up CNS function
- elevate mood
878
depressants
- alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines
- slow down CNS functions
- reduce anxiety
- enhance GABA effect
879
narcotic analgesics (painkillers)
- morphine, cocaine, heroin
- lessen pain sensation
880
hallucinogens
- LSD
- trigger mind-altering effects
881
species with higher, positive standard reduction potentials are ____ easily reduced and are stronger ____ agents
more; oxidizing
882
nutrients that have been absorbed by the small intestine into the blood are routed to
the liver via hepatic portal vein
=> balance nutrient-rich blood and detoxify before delivering to rest of the body
883
first order reaction
doubling a reagent's concentration doubles the reaction rate
884
a prion disease can be confirmed by
Western blot - detect presence of specific proteins
- gel electrophoresis
- primary antibodies
- secondary antibodies
885
decreased water permeability of collecting ducts (non-functional aquaporins)
larger volume of urine with lower osmolarity
886
bacterial morphology
- bacilli: rod-shaped
- cocci: spherical
- spirilli: spiral
887
sympathetic pathway neurotransmitters
prepanglionic: acetylcholine
postganglionic: norepinephrine
888
parasympathetic pathway neurontransmitters
preganglionic and postganglionic: acetylcholine
889
in myelinated fibers, voltage-gated Na+ channels are only present at
nodes of Ranvier
=> number of Na+ ions transported into a myelinated fiber increases in a stair-step pattern
890
CNS neuroglia
- ependymal cells: line compartments and produce CSF
- oligodendrocytes: form myelin sheaths around multiple axons
- microglia: immune cells that phagocytize pathogens, damaged cells, waste materials
- astrocytes: contact blood vessels, regulate blood flow to coordinate synaptic activity and chemical changes, maintain extracellular fluid, ion, pH and neurotransmitter homeostasis => helps form BBB
891
PNS neuroglia
- Schwann cells: form myelin sheaths around axons
- Satellite cells: structural support + supply nutrients to neurons
892
ideal sarcomere resting length
- actin filaments must overlap with myosin filaments to maximize binding of myosin heads to actin on contraction
- distance between ends of actin filaments and M-line should be maximized to provide greatest distance for actin filaments to slide during contraction
893
DNA viruses that have double-stranded genomes that are similar to the host cell's genome can directly utilize ____ for transcription and replication
host enzymes
894
a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus's genome can
directly serve as an mRNA molecule in the host cytoplasm
895
retroviruses
- can integrate with host genome
- enveloped
- cary two identical +ssRNA molecules
- reverse transcription
896
bacteriophage
- viruses that only infect bacteria but do NOT enter host cells to replicate their genetic material
- use tail sheath to inject phage genome into bacterium
897
prion
misfolded protein that acts as an infectious agent by inducing other normal proteins aggregate and can cause disease
- no genetic material
- cannot transform bacteria
898
desmosomes
provide tensile strength to epithelial cell sheets by anchoring cytoskeletons
- muscle tissue, epithelial layers of skin
899
gap junctions
mediate communication between cells
- smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, neural tissue
connexon channels align with each other to facilitate exchange of ions and small solutes
-> coordinated activity
900
tight junctions
prevent water and solutes from diffusing between cells and across epithelial cell layer
- skin
- GI tract
- testis
901
___ is constant in a series circuit and ___ is constant in a parallel circuit
current; voltage
902
electric force Fe
= q*E
q = charge
E = electric field = Voltage/distance
903
electric force should be in the ___ direction as the proton's motion to increase its velocity
same
904
number of electrons from electric charge gained
n = Q/e
n = # of electrons
Q = electric charge
e = charge of an electron
905
conservation of energy
any change in kinetic energy is accompanied by an equal and opposite change in potential energy such that the total mechanical energy remains constant
906
velocity of a projectile during constant acceleration
v^2 = (v^2)i + 2*a*delta x
907
magnification of a two-lens system
M = M1*M2
M1 = lens 1 magnification
M2 = lens 2 magnification
908
magnification of multiple lenses
final M equals product of the magnifications of each individual lens
909
magnification M
= i/o
i = distance from lens to image
o = distance from lens to object
910
energy of sound wave is ____ proportional to the amplitude ____
directly; squared
911
distance traveled by a uniformly accelerating object
d = v0*t + (1/2)a*t^2
912
spherical aberration of a converging lens is caused because light rays
are excessively refracted at the lens periphery
series of focal points
913
Archimedes' principle states that the buoyant force acting on a floating force is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the object
if a cube floats half submerged in oil of density 800 kg/m3, the cube density is ½ × 800 kg/m3 = 400 kg/m3
914
hidden curriculum
implicit, unofficial information conveyed through the educational system
e.g. "Boys are better at math than girls"
915
halo effect
attributional error that occurs when an individual with a positive quality is assumed to have other positive qualities
916
attribution theory
individuals tend to explain behavior as resulting from internal or external causes
917
deindividuation
loss of individual self-awareness when one is part of a large group engaged in an emotionally arousing activity
- reduced sense of personal responsibility
- increased sense of anonymity
=> result: reduced personal identity and inhibitions as identification with the group increases + increased responsiveness to group behavior
-> negative crowd behavior
918
dissociative identity disorder
presence of two or more distinct personalities; amnesia
919
dissociative amnesia
inability to recall important autobiographical information
920
generalized anxiety disorder
excessive and uncontrollable worry about a range of events
- muscle tension
- difficulty concentrating or sleeping
- restlessness
- fatigue
- irritability
921
false vs class consciousness
class consciousness: recognition of class structure and identification with one's own social class such that individuals understand that people from other classes have needs and interests different from their own
false consciousness: individuals from lower classes adopt misleading views of the upper class and accept the status quo (injustice, exploitation)
922
monoamine hypothesis
depletion of monoamine transmitters (DA, NE, SER) in the CNS directly causes depression symptoms
923
Parkinson disease is caused by
death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (part of basal ganglia)
=> nigrostriatal pathway is damaged
=> balance between excitatory and inhibitory nigra are destroyed
924
monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
decrease breakdown of monoamines by inhibiting monoamine oxidase
925
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
block reuptake of serotonin from synaptic cleft into presynaptic neuron
926
somatic symptom disorder
extreme concern regarding one or more physical symptoms
927
conversion disorder
neurological symptoms that are not explainable by a medical condition
928
illness anxiety disorder
preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious disease
929
facititious disorder
symptoms or illness are intentionally fabricated without obvious external gain
930
product of the reaction of butanoic acid and ethanol under acidic conditions
ethyl butanoate (ester)
931
Rf
distance compound traveled from origin/distance from origin to solvent front
larger Rf value = less polar, more mobile compound
932
absorption spectrum
O-H = 3650-3200 cm^-1 (broad)
alcohol = 3300
carboxylic acid = 3000
sp C-H 3300 cm^-1
sp^2 C-H 3100 cm^-1
sp^3 C-H 3000 cm^-1
C=O 1810-1650 cm^-1 (strong)
C=C 1600-1475cm^-1 (weak)
IR spectrum: highest wavenumber stretching vibration occurs for the bond with the lightest combined mass of atoms
933
equivalent protons
- same environment
- same chemical shift
- appear as one signal
- same atoms surrounding them
934
electron cloud around the protons ___ them from external magnetic field, causing an ___ signal
shields; upfield (smaller chemical shift)
935
an electronegative substituent withdraws electrons and ___ neighboring protons from the magnetic field, causing an ___ signal
deshields; downfield (larger chemical shift)
936
max possible stereoisomers
2^n
n = # of stereocenters (chiral centers)
937
Gabriel synthesis
- malonic ester synthesis
- make primary amines (including alpha-amino acids) without overalkylation of the amine
- amino acid product is a mixture of L- and D-amino acids
e.g. potassium phtalimide and diethyl bromomalonate as starting products
938
most natural amino acids are in the ___-configuration and ___ configuration
L; S
939
L-amino acids are drawn with H ___ the plane of the backbone (___ line) whereas D-amino acids are drawn with H ____ the plane (___ line)
L -> behind, dashed
D -> in front of, wedged
940
order of priority of groups bonded to alpha-carbon
1. -NH2 (N > C)
2. -CO2H (C-O > C-N)
3. -R
4. -H
941
pKa carboxyl group
2
942
pKa amino group
9
943
conjugation
alternating single and double bonds
=> delocalization of e- so that energy difference between ground and excited states correspond to the energy of the light being absorbed
=> resonance stabilization
excitation and energy dissipation/emission
fluorescence => photon in UV or visible region is absorbed by a fluorophore
-> photons excite certain e- to higher energy states and the e- loses some of its energy as heat
-> remaining energy emitted as a photon with a longer wavelength that the one that was absorbed
944
Tryptophan has an ___ group
indole (double ring with N)
945
amide
acyl group bound to an -NR2 subsitutent
formed when a primary or secondary amine attacks electrophilic carbonyl carbon
formed from carboxylic acid and amine
946
enamine
contains N linked to a C that is double-bonded to another C
formed by addition of a secondary amine to an aldehyde or ketone
947
angle of normal sp3 hybridized atoms
109.5
948
nucleophilic acyl substitution
- anhydride cleavage to ester and carboxylic acid
- nucleophilic attack of carbonyl by alcohol
- LG = carboxylic acid
- follows an addition-elimination mechanism and proceeds through a tetrahedral intermediate
949
alkyl groups with a theta = 60 degrees
gauche conformation (modest torsional energy)
950
staggered conformations
60 degree intervals, lower energy than eclipsed conformations
- represented as valleys in energy plot
951
eclipsed bonds
- generate torsional energy due to the steric repulsion of electrons between aligned groups
- represented as peaks in energy plot
- higher in energy than staggered conformations
- energy of eclipsed CH3-H < energy of eclipsed CH3-CH3 bonds
- larger alkyl groups generate greater torsional energy
952
BH3 is selective for
carboxylic acids (over other carbonyl compounds)
CA -> primary alcohol
953
NaBH4 is selective for
ketones and aldehydes (over other carbonyl compounds)
ketones -> secondary alcohol
954
cooperative enzymes must have ___ active sites
multiple
955
in the absence of cooperativity, the shape of the curve would be
hyperbolic
956
___ provide energy for gluconeogenesis
fatty acid oxidation
- fatty acid to acetyl-CoA yields NADH and FADH2 -> can enter e- transport chain to product ATP
- acetyl-CoA can enter Krebs cycle to produce more NADH and FADH2, and GTP
957
tripling the enzyme concentration ___ Vmax and ____ Km
triples Vmax
Km stays constant
958
does Km vary with [E]?
no
959
Vmax is ___ proportional to [E] and Kcat
directly
Vmax = [E]*(Kcat)
960
histidine has __ in its side chain
imidazole
(5C ring with two N and two double bonds)
961
amino acid with a thiol group in its R group
Cysteine
=> peptide bond could form disulfide-linked dimer
962
amino acids known to disrupt alpha-helices and unlikely to be found in alpha-helices (instead found in loops and linker regions at sharp turns)
glycine
proline
963
ribose is a pentose that links to the nitrogenous base through a glycosidic bond and a ____ bond links the __' carbon of ribose to the triphosphate group
phosphoester
5
964
proteins fold ___
spontaneously
965
western blot
- protein electrophoresis
- protein/membrane transfer
- addition of blocking protein from milk or BSA
- addition of primary antibodies
- addition of secondary antibodies
- fluorescence
966
proteins with a net negative charge at physiological pH have a ___ pI
low
=> require low pH for neutralization
967
proteins with a net positive charge at physiological pH have a ___ pI
positive charge
=> high pH needed to deprotonate enough of the positively charged side chains
968
types of tissue
- eptihelial (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm) skin, lining of hollow organs
- muscle (mesoderm): skeletal, cardiac, smooth
- connective (mesoderm): bone, blood, fat, tendons/ligaments, cartilage
- nervous (ectoderm): brain, spinal cord, nerves
969
senescence
- natural aging process during which cells and tissues acquire damage
- may result from degradation of telomeres (chromosome ends) that occurs over time b/c DNA replication processes do not allow complete replication of linear telomeres => HOWEVER telomerase (e.g. in stem cells) is a reverse transcriptase that allows synthesis of telomeres and the prevention of senescence (cell immortalization)
970
reduced blood flow through right atrioventricular (AV) valve
1. reduced blood flow from right atrium to right ventricle
2. reduced right atrial output causes blood accumulation in the veins
3. hydrostatic pressure in systemic veins and capillaries increases
4. excess fluid leakage (edema)
971
left ventricle has ___ walls than right ventricle
thicker walls pump blood at higher pressure to all body tissues except lungs
972
some viruses with + sense, single-stranded RNA genomes can
directly translate their genetic material into viral proteins upon infection of a host cell
973
osteoblasts vs osteoclasts
osteoblasts: use Ca2+ from blood to mineralize bone matrix, deposit new bone
osteoclasts: degrade bone matrix & release Ca2+ into blood - bone resorption
974
transcription factors rely on their ___ to gain entrance to the nucleus
nuclear localization sequence = nuclear import tag
975
alternate splicing increases ___ diversity
protein
NOT genetic diversity
976
joining of homologous chromosomes into tetrads occurs during prophase I of meiosis and is required for crossover events to occur
synapsis
=> increases genetic diversity
977
mRNA transcripts for most axon terminal mitochondrial proteins arise from
the soma
978
function of liver cells
- regulation of blood glucose via glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis
- storage of glycogen, mineral (Fe) and vitamins
- synthesis of macromolecules such as plasma proteins, fats, ketone bodies & cholesterol
- production & secretion of bile
- breakdown/detoxification of numerous drugs & metabolic waste products
979
sperm structure
- head: contains acrosome and nucleus
- midpiece: mitochondria to produce ATP
- tail/flagellum: motility, microtubules
980
what prevents new action potentials during repolarization?
inactivation of voltage-gated Na+ channels
-> prevent re-entry of Na+ ions
Na+ channel inactivation gates are closed
981
during the relative refractory period, voltage-gated Na+ channels are
deactivated
a new AP can be generated because inactivation gates have been opened, but a stronger than normal stimulus would be needed
982
ACTH
released by pituitary gland; increases production of cortisol from cholesterol by smooth ER proteins
983
during inspiration, diaphgram
contracts (moves "downward")
=> thoracic cavity volume increases and pressure decreases within lungs
=> air flows down pressure gradient into lungs
984
animal cell plasma membranes contain
- phospholipids
- cholesterol
- glycolipids
- glycoproteins
985
pituitary gland secretes
TSH, LH, FSH, ACTH, GH
986
ideal gas characteristics
- elastic collisions
- kinetic energy increases with temperature
- pressure produced by combined force of collisions
- relatively negligible molecular volume (size)
- no attractive or repulsive interactions
987
kinetic product vs thermodynamic product
kinetic product: forms the fastest (lowest energy transition state/activation energy, high energy) - favored at low temperature, less substituted alpha-C
thermodynamic product: most stable (lowest energy) - favored at high temperature, more substituted alpha-C
988
ionization energies
- energy needed to remove an e- from a ground state gaseous form or ion
In Mg: 2 e- in valence shell
1st IE: energy required to remove first e- (valence)
2nd IE: energy required to remove second e- (valence)
3rd IE: energy required to remove third e- (core)
3rd IE >> 2nd IE > 1st IE
lowest IE = most reactive
largest alkali metals are most reactive because:
larger size -> valence e- occupy higher energy levels -> less energy needed to remove an e- from the valence shell
989
why is H-F not a strong acid?
F has the smallest atomic radius
=> smaller, stronger bond
=> the H-F bond is STRONG
990
why does Oxygen have low electron affinity?
EN atom O has an increased e- density around it, creating a dipole
-> increased electron-electron repulsion between valence e- upon adding an e- causes oxygen to have a small e- affinity
991
Boyle's Law
P is inversely proportional to V (constant T and n)
992
Charles' Law
T is directly proportional to V at fixed P
993
Avogadro's law
Number of moles (n) is directly proportional to V of an ideal gas at fixed T and P
994
Gay-Lussac's Law
P is directly proportional to T at fixed V
995
Dalton's Law of partial pressures
the partial pressure of a gas is its component of the total pressure
partial pressure = mole fraction*total pressure
996
lower density of object relative to solution density
object floats
if object has a density less than that of the liquid it is placed in
997
objects sink in liquids with a ___ comparable density
lower
998
direction of electric current is ___ the direction of electron migration
opposite
999
positron emission
beta-plus decay = nuclear proton converts to a neutron and ejects a positron (e- w/ positive charge)
-> atomic number decreases by 1
1000
isotopes
- same element (atomic number) with a different # of neutrons
- designated by mass number
- isotopes of the same element have nearly identical CHEMICAL properties but differ in PHYSICAL properties
1001
escape learning
- negative reinforcement
- current undesirable stimulus removed
behavior to terminate aversive stimulus
1002
reinforcement vs punishment
reinforcement increases behavior
punishment decreases behavior
1003
avoidance learning
- negative reinforcement
- future undesirable stimulus removed
behavior to prevent aversive stimulus from being administered
1004
positive reinforcement
desirable stimulus added
1005
negative reinforcement
undesirable stimulus removed
1006
positive punishment
undesirable stimulus added
1007
negative punishment
desirable stimulus removed
1008
major theories & theorists of language & cognition
- universalism: cognition controls language
- Piaget: cognition influences language
- Vygotsky: cognition and language develop independently and merge later, children learn actively through hands-on processes, parents/cultural beliefs/language/attitudes responsible for higher function of learning, child internalizes interactions with others
- linguistic relativity: language influences cognition
- linguistic determinism: language controls cognition
1009
Piaget
<2 years: sensorimotor
- experience environment via sense & actions
- object permanence (understand that objects continue to exist even when out of view) & stranger anxiety
2-7 years: preoperational
- represent real things with words & images
- pretend play
- language development
- egocentrism: tendency of the child to view the world through their own experiences and perspective
7-11 years: concrete operational
- think logically about concrete events
- grasp concrete analogies
- arithmetic
- conservation, mathematical transformation
- empathy
12+ years: formal operational
- think about hypothetical scenarios
- grasp abstract thoughts
- abstract logic
- moral reasoning
- reason consequences
1010
availability heuristic
how easily something comes to memory
1011
representativeness heuristic
how well something matches a mental prototype (look for most representative answer)
can lead to conjunction fallacy: co-occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one
1012
stereotypes vs discrimination vs prejudice
stereotypes: generalized BELIEFS (good or bad) about social groups
- cognition
discrimination: differential (negative) TREATMENT of someone based on membership in a social group
- action
prejudice: negative belief/attitude & FEELING about someone based on membership in a social group
- emotion
xenophobia: fear and suspicion towards cultures perceived to be foreign
scapegoating: erroneously assigning BLAME to an identifiable source, often when the real cause is abstract, such as globalization - AGGRESSION
1013
aggregate
collection of individuals who share a common location but do not identify as a group
1014
serial position effect
items that are easiest to recall are those from the beginning (primary effect) and end (recency effect) of the list, while middle items are the hardest to recall
1015
EEG brain wave patterns
- awake, alert: beta waves
- awake, relaxed: alpha waves
- NREM 1: theta waves
- NREM 2: sleep spindles, K complexes
- NREM 3: (SWS): delta waves
1016
inclusive fitness
direct fitness (own reproduction) + indirect fitness (cooperative behavior that aids kin)
1017
ratios & intervals
fixed ratio: rapid response rate, short pause after R (reward)
variable ratio:
- rapid, steady response rate
- most resistant to extinction
fixed interval:
- slower response rate after R
- faster response rate right before
variable interval:
- slow, steady response rate
- resistant to extinction
1018
primary vs secondary reinforcement
primary: innately desirable reward (food, praise)
secondary: learned reward (money, good grades)
1019
connective tissue attaching bones to other bones
ligaments
1020
connective tissue attaching bones to surrounding muscles
tendons
1021
blood pathway
R Atrium -> R Ventricle -> Pulmonary Artery -> Lungs -> Pulmonary Veins -> L Atrium -> L Ventricle -> Aorta -> Arteries -> Arterioles -> Capillaries -> Venules -> Veins -> Vena Cava -> R Atrium
1022
____ hormones bind to transport proteins, ____ hormones circulate free
steroid (lipophilic); peptide (hydrophilic)
1023
hypothalamic-pituitary thyroid axis
Hypothalamus (TRH) -> Pituitary Gland (TSH) -> Thyroid Gland -> Thyroid hormones
1024
hormonal control of calcium levels in the body
- calcitrol (produced by modifying vit D in liver & kidney)
- calcitonin (secreted by C cells of thyroid)
- PTH
1025
calcitrol
- most active form of vit D
- stimulates intestinal calcium absorption
1026
Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of ___ hormone
thyroid
1027
Huntington's disease
autosomal dominant genetic neurodegenerative disease in which neuronal loss occurs in extensive regions of the brain, including basal ganglia
1028
multiple sclerosis
neurodegenerative disease in which immune cells attach the myelin sheaths surrounding axons in the CNS
1029
Alzheimer's disease
progressive neurodegenerative brain disease characterized by the presence of plaques composed of beta amyloid proteins and neurofibrillary tangles composed of tau proteins
- decreased size of cerebrum
- starts in temporal lobe
- loss of neurons
- amyloid plaques
- neurofibrillary tangles (tau)
- nucleus basalis (group of neurons at base of cerebrum, release Ach) is lost early on
- genetic mutations
- ApoE - fat metabolism
1030
afferent (sensory) information from the body to the brain is carried through the spinal ___ matter
white
1031
efferent neuronal fibers carry motor commands from the brain to the body through tracts in the spinal ___ matter
white
1032
gray matter in spinal cord
- in the center
- composed of unmyelinated neuronal cell bodies and dendrites
1033
white matter in spinal cord
- in the periphery
- composed of myelinated and unmyelinated axons that allow for long-distance communication between neurons
1034
in the descending limb, ___ is reabsorbed
water
1035
in the ascending limb, ___ is reabsorbed
NaCl
1036
hormones __ & ___ are produced in the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary
ADH & Oxytocin
1037
movement of food along the GI tract occurs via
peristalsis = coordinated contraction of smooth (nonstriated) muscle tissue lining the intestine walls
1038
effects of peptide hormones on pancreas and gallbladder function
1. Release of peptide hormones
2A. Stimulation of gallbladder contraction, increasing bile secretion
=> 3A. Increases lipid micelle production by bile salts
3A. Activation of pancreatic exocrine cell receptors, increasing digestive enzyme release into small intestine
=> 3B. Food breakdown by pancreatic enzymes (trypsinogen)
1039
when fertilization occurs
LH and FSH levels still drop (and suppressed), but progesterone and estrogen levels remain high
FSH: stimulates development of ovarian follicles
Progesterone stimulates thickening of the endometrium to be receptive to embryo implantation
1040
neural crest cells
derive from the residual portions of the neural folds that do not contribute to neural tube formation
- give rise to PNS glia (Schwann cells and satellite cells)
1041
CNS is derived from
the neural tube
1042
totipotent
can differentiate into any cell type from either an embryonic or extraembryonic/placental lineage
1043
pluripotent
can differentiate into cells of multiple tissues found in the body
can give rise to any of the three primary germ layers found in the embryo (fetal cells) BUT NOT the cell found in placental structures
1044
multipotent
can differentiate into cells with many specialized functions that are limited in that they are committed to a specific lineage
- cells also found in adults
1045
trophoblast
forms placenta
1046
inner cell mass
forms gastrula, inside trophoblast
1047
real gas with compressibility > 1
effects from molecular volume
=> higher V and higher compressibility than ideal gas
1048
real gas with compressibility < 1
attractions between molecules
=> decrease force of molecular collisions with container wall
=> lower P and lower compressibility
1049
parts per million (PPM)
(mass of solute)/(mass of solution) x 10^6
1050
is NH4 an acid or a base?
acid (weak)
1051
precipitation occurs when
the ion product is greater than Ksp
1052
[B]^b[C]^c < Ksp
solution has not reached solubility limit
1053
[B]^b[C]^c = Ksp
solution has reached the limit of solubility, equilibrium
1054
[B]^b[C]^c > Ksp
solution has exceeded the solubility limit and no more will dissolve - any ions in excess will precipitate
1055
common-ion effect
if a solution contains two compounds that have an ion in common, the common ion supplied by one compound will perturb the equilibrium position of the other compound, causing the equilibrium to shift toward the reactant
1056
heat of reaction (delta H) using bond enthalpies
sum of the enthalpy changes for each step:
= (sum of enthalpy of bonds broken) - (sum of enthalpy of bonds formed)
enthalpies of bonds broken (endothermic) and bonds formed (exothermic) have opposite signs, which is why it's a substraction
1057
forming a bond is
exothermic
1058
breaking a bond is
endothermic
1059
Kp (equilibrium partial pressure) for aA + bB <=> cC
Kp = (products)^coefficient/(reactants)^coefficient
1060
for an exothermic reaction (delta H is ___), the equilibrium position shifts towards ____ with decreasing temperature
negative; products
heat is a product
As temperature increases, Keq decreases because shift to reactants (since heat is a product)
1061
reduction often involves the formation of bonds to
H
1062
oxidation often involves the formation of bonds to
O
1063
catabolism
- oxidative process that releases energy
- during catabolic oxidation of fuel molecules, oxidizing agents such as NAD+ are reduced
1064
Citric acid cycle rxns that produce reduce electron carriers
isocitrate -> alpha-ketoglutarate
alpha-ketoglutarate -> succinyl CoA
succinate -> fumarate
malate -> oxaloacetate
1065
why is ATP hydrolysis exothermic?
more energy is released by the new bonds that form than is consumed by the initial bonds that break during hydrolysis
1066
Schiff bases
appear when a protein forms a covalent bond to a carbonyl-containing compound by the nucleophilic addition of an amine to form an imine linkage
1067
ABSENCE of light causes rods and cones to ___ the cell
depolarize
inactive transducins -> cGMP phosphodiesterase inactive -> cGMP can accumulate and bind to CNG channels and open them -> Ca2+ and Na+ enter cell
1068
disulfide bonds form in ___ conditions and can be broken by ____ agents
oxidizing; reducing
1069
___ protons are pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane in response to electrons from FADH2 (complex II) than from electrons donated by NADH
fewer
1070
alpha helices are stabilized by
hydrogen bonds in the peptide backbone between amide protons and carbonyl oxygens of non-adjacent amino acid residues
secondary structure
1071
phosphorylation ___ the isoelectric point (pI) of proteins
protein originally neutral (pH = pI)*
-> phosphate adds NEGATIVE charge to protein
-> protons added to neutralize phosphate
-> solution is acidic (pI new < pI neutral)
1072
q = n*e
q = charge on an object
n = number of electrons
e = electron charge 1.6*10^-19C
1073
in a closed loop, the sum of all voltage drops is
zero
voltage drops across conductor due to resistance
1074
friction force =
(coefficient of kinetic friction)*(normal force)
1075
if subject is moving toward, the reflected light has higher ___
frequency
velocity is unchanged
1076
cardiac output CO =
SV*HR
HR = heart rate
SV = stroke volume = EDV - ESV
EDV = end diastolic volume
ESV = end systolic volume
1077
single-slit diffraction depends on
- slit width
- wavelength
1078
adiabatic
no heat transfer between system and environment
1079
isochoric
constant volume
1080
isobaric
constant pressure
1081
isothermal
constant temperature
1082
change in internal energy (delta U)
= Q + W
W = P*delta V
1083
for a mirror, the reflected angle of the light is equal to the
incident angle
1084
conductivity
= 1/resistivity
= ease in which electrons flow within the molecular structure of a material
conductivity increase -> resistance decreases -> current increases
1085
when object floats on surface of fluid
buoyant force = weight of object
1086
z configuration
higher-priority groups on the SAME side of the double bond
1087
acid-base extraction
acid and base components in the mixture are initially in the organic layer but can enter the aqueous phase if converted to an ionic salt by deprotonation or protonation via extraction with an aqueous base or acid, respectively
1088
molececules dissolve in solvents of ___ polarity
similar
1089
molecules that do NOT contain electronegative atoms are nonpolar/hydrophobic because
they do not exhibit strong intermolecular interactions with water
1090
N-H stretch IR spectrum peak
~3300 cm^-1
range: 3600-3200
1091
C=O stretch IR spectrum peak
1750 cm^-1
1092
Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) polarity
solvent front (mobile phase) = nonpolar -> greatest affinity for nonpolar compounds
stationary phase = polar
1093
arrangement of groups is clockwise and
lowest priority group is in front of plane (wedge)
L configuration, S configuration
1094
___ hydrogen bonding forms dimers, which ____ melting point
rigid; increases
1095
electron-withdrawing (electronegative)
more electrophilic
1096
HVZ alpha-bromination (PBr3, Br2) only works on
carboxylic acids
1097
condensation of carboxylic acid and amine is
NOT spontaneous
1098
conversion alcohols to tosylates or mesylates
- improves leaving group ability through resonance stabilization because alcohols are weak electrophiles and poor LGs
- does not change stereochemistry
- S-O bond formed
- reaction of alcohol with p-tolenesulfonyl chloride (TsCl) and a base (e.g. pyridine)
1099
tertiary alcohols form a ___ stable carbocation than primary or secondary alcohols
more
1100
tertiary alcohols ___ be oxidized
cannot because they do not have any C-H bonds to lose
oxidation = decrease in # of C-H bonds and increase in # of C-O bonds
1101
aldehydes are converted to ___ by oxidizing agents
carboxylic acids
1102
secondary alcohols are converted to ___ by oxidizing agents
ketones
1103
primary alcohols are converted to ___ by oxidizing agents
carboxylic acids
EXCEPT: PCC converts to aldehydes
1104
LiAlH4
reducing agent
aldehydes reduced to primary alcohols
ketones reduced to secondary alcohols
1105
under oxidizing conditions, aldehyde is ___ and is oxidized to ___
reactive; carboxylic acid
1106
ether
R-O-R'
R groups are alkyl groups that can be identical or different
1107
protons on the carbon atom adjacent (alpha) to a carbonyl group are ___ acidic than other protons bonded to a C atom
more
- O on carbonyl group is e- withdrawing (carbonyl has partial positive charge) and electrons of C-H bond are attracted toward positive charge
- charge delocalization over multiple atoms create more stable resonance structure
1108
acetals
- common protective group for aldehydes
- two -OR groups in place of carbonyl
1109
ketals
- common protecting group for ketones
1110
hemiacetal
one -OR group and one -OH group on carbon atom part of the carbonyl
1111
oxidation of an aldehyde
aldehyde + H2O -> germinal diol -> carboxylic acid
reagents: CrO3, KMnO4, H2Cr2O4, Ag2O, etc
1112
PCC
can only oxidize primary alcohols to ALDEHYDES and secondary alcohols to ketones
it CANNOT oxidize aldehydes further because it is anhydrous - does not contain H2O necessary to convert aldehyde to a hydrate (necessary intermediate to be oxidized to a carboxylic acid)
1113
4 electron domains (includes lone pairs and sigma bonds) - double bond counted as single e- domain
sp3 <120 degrees
1114
3 electron domains
sp2 = 120 degrees
1115
2 electron domains
sp
1116
tertiary carbocations have ___ stability than primary carbocations and will have a ___ relative rate of formation during an SN1 reaction
more; faster
1117
first-order (SN1) reactions are ___ with regard to the nucleophile, and the rate of reaction is ___ of nucleophile identity
zero-order; independent
SN1:
A + B -> products
rate = k[A]^1[B]^0 where B is the nucleophile
SN2:
rate = k[A]^1[B]^1
1118
weak nucleophile + heat as reactants
SN1 reaction
1119
cells of immune system
- B cells: identify foreign pathogens, present antigen, produce antibodies
- T cells: mediate a number of immune responses, such as against viruses, bacteria, parasites
- dendritic cells: identify foreign pathogens, present antigen, activate other immune cells
- macrophages: degrade pathogens & dead body cells via phagocytosis
- basophils: release chemical mediators such as histamine that enhance an immune response
- mast cells: release chemical mediators such as histamine that modulate allergic reactions
- neutrophils: kill & phagocytize bacterial cells
- eosinophils: defend against parasitic infections & modulate immune responses during allergic reactions
- natural killer cells: release toxins to destroy virus-infected body cells
1120
hormones that increase appetite
Ghrelin (stimulates Orexin secretion), Orexin
1121
hormone that suppresses appetite
Leptin (suppresses Orexin production)
1122
T lymphocytes
secrete signaling molecules that activate other immune cells
- binds antigen presented on MHC proteins and releases cytokines, which promote enhanced phagocytosis and destruction of pathogens by macrophages
helper cells: produce cytokines that activate other cells of immune system and enhance immune cell activity
cytotoxic cells: cause apoptosis to occur in pathogen-infected cells -> activated by signals from other immune cells
1123
sebum
- skin oils
- innate immune system: kill harmful bacteria on skin surface
- slow water loss from skin via evaporation
1124
repeated friction causes keratin production to
increase
extra keratin produced and deposited to help protect this area from injury
+ callus forms
trimming nails that are already keratinized does NOT affect the consistent level of keratin production
1125
during an inflammatory response, blood vessels
dilate + become more permeable to increase blood flow and bring more immune cells to the affected area
1126
collecting duct is relatively IMpermeable to water when
body is well hydrated
-> less water reabsorbed into body
1127
ADH
when blood volume is LOW:
stimulates insertion of aquaporins into collecting duct cell membranes
-> increases collecting duct permeability to water
-> increase water reabsorption + decrease urine output
1128
aldosterone
- released in response to decreased blood pressure or blood volume (or when serum level of K+ is increased)
- stimulates collecting duct to reabsorb Na+ and secrete K+ into the urine
- promotes water reabsorption
1129
meiosis I separates ____ and meiosis II separates ____
homologous chromosomes; sister chromatids
1130
genes that are located close together on a chromosome have a ___ probability of being separated by recombination so ___ progeny from a cross will have recombinant genotypes than will have parental genotypes
lower; fewer
1131
uterine/fallopian tube
typical location of fertilization
1132
ovary
produces oocytes and secretes hormones
1133
uterus
protects and nourishes developing embryo and fetus
- endometrium: inner lining
- myometrium: layer of smooth muscle
- cervix: inferior portion that connects to vagina
1134
migration through an SDS-PAGE gel is ____ proportional to the log of molecular weight
inversely
smaller proteins migrate faster
1135
fast-twitch muscles contract ___, have ___ mitochondria, and have ___ myoglobin than slow-twitch muscles
faster; fewer; less
=> less fatigue-resistant
1136
muscle fibers compensate during oxygen deficit by
- using ATP stored in muscle fiber
- breaking down creatine phosphate to generate ATP
- generate ATP via anaerobic glycolysis
- continuing aerobic respiration using O2 bound to myoglobin
1137
genetic leakage
mating between hybrid species and parental species produce viable offspring
- transfer of genes between different species
1138
molecular clock model
neutral mutations (not affecting fitness) accumulate in an organism's genome at a fairly constant rate over evolutionary time
1139
reproductive isolation
when two species cannot interbreed to produce viable or fertile offspring
- prezygotic
- postzygotic
1140
convergent evolution
similar characteristics in distantly related species that are exposed to similar environmental pressures
1141
parallel evolution
similar characteristics in closely related species with a more recent common ancestor that are exposed to similar environmental pressures
1142
divergent evolution
unique characteristics in somewhat closely related species descended from a recent common ancestor that face contrasting environmental pressures
1143
extrauterine implantation (embryo implants in a location other than the uterine lining) could occur due to
reduced number of fallopian cilia (normally propel fertilized oocyte toward uterus for implantation)
1144
growth hormone (GH) is released from
anterior pituitary gland
1145
posterior pituitary hormones are released from ___ into the blood that leaves the posterior pituitary
neurons - does NOT contain glandular endocrine cells because derived from ectodermal neural tissue
1. posterior pituitary hormones synthesized in hypothalamic neurons
2. hormones transported to axon terminal and stored in vesicles
3. depolarization causes release of hormones into blood vessels
1146
anterior pituitary is derived from
epithelial cells from developing roof of mouth and contains typical glandular endocrine cells
1147
anabolic stimuli
promote accumulation of newly synthesized proteins
1148
catabolic stimuli
inhibit protein synthesis or stimulate protein degradation
1149
tropic hormones
work on other endocrine glands
target endocrine tissues to influence secretion of another hormone
1150
universal emotions
happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, surprise
1151
limbic system
involved in emotion, learning, and memory:
- amygdala
- hippocampus
- hypothalamus
- thalamus
- cingulate gyrus
1152
fermentation regenerates __ in the absence of oxygen and takes place in the ___
NAD+; cytosol
1153
three components of emotion
- cognitive: mental processes accompanying an emotion & involved in appraisal of the situation
- behavioral: immediate outward reaction to an emotion that is involuntary & automatic
- physiological: bodily processes that accompany an emotion
1154
PET imaging
scanner detects radioactive tracer attached to a glucose analog -> measures glucose metabolism in the brain
1155
fMRI
measures blood oxygenation in the brain
1156
foot-in-the-door
individuals are more likely to agree to a bigger request after agreeing to a smaller request
1157
optimism bias
tendency for people to underestimate the probability that bad things will happen to them
1158
labelling theory
when individuals are assigned a "deviant" label by others in society, they are more likely to behave in deviant ways, therefore justifying the label
1159
overconfidence bias
degree to which people are sure of their belief is greater than the accuracy of that belief (overestimate subjective knowledge compared to objective facts)
1160
bipolar disorders
mania; abnormally elevated or irritable mood and increased energy, flight of ideas, feelings of grandiosity, reduced need for sleep, impulsive or reckless behaviors, lack of interest in activities previously enjoyed
1161
subculture
group of individuals who are characteristically distinct from the dominant culture, but whose values and norms still generally align with the dominant culture
1162
secularization
modernization
=> religious institutions lose social and political influence (power) as religious involvement declines
=> fundamentalism: renewed adherence to strict, traditional religious beliefs by some individiuals
1163
social reproduction
transmission of society's values, norms, and practices from one generation to the next - including social inequality
perpetuation of inequality through social institutions
eg. child of wealthy parents tends to be wealthy as an adult
1164
sapir-whorf hypothesis
linguistic relativity = language influences our perception and cognition
linguistic determinism = language controls perception and cognition
1165
opponent-process theory
color information from cones is combined in such a way that we perceive three opposing pairs of colors: black/white, blue/yellow, red/green
1166
young-helmholtz theory
trichromatic theory = all the colors we see are the result of the combine activity of three types of photoreceptors: those that respond to short (blue), medium (green), and long (red) wavelengths of light
1167
the ___ contains the greatest density of cones in the retina
fovea = central portion of retina that receives information from central visual field
fovea is avascular so no blood vessels to interfere with light reception by cones, highest visual acuity
1168
rods are primarily present in the ___ of the retina
periphery
1169
optic disc
region of retina where both the optic nerve (ganglion cell axons) exits and the artery that vascularizes the retina enters
- contain proteins that fire APs to the brain
- when optic nerve connects to retina, no photoreceptors in this area = "blind spot"
1170
color and form are processed by the ___ pathway
parvo
retina -> ventral LGN -> V1 -> ventral brain regions
1171
motion and depth are processed by the ___ pathway
magno
retina -> dorsal LGN -> V1 -> dorsal brain regions
1172
cognitive-behavioral therapy
attempts to change negative thoughts/beliefs (cognitions) & maladaptive behaviors
e.g. self-talk, desensitization
1173
aversion therapy
associate negative states with unwanted behavior
1174
psychoanalytic therapy
attempts to uncover how unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood shape behaviors
e.g. free association, dream analysis to analyze unconscious
1175
social cognitive theories
observation of others for purposes of modeling - interactions between people and their environment, cognition is also important
1176
humanistic therapy
attempts to empower individual to move toward self-actualization, focus on conscious, people are inherently good - Carl Rogers
conditions: genuine individual and acceptance from others -> genuine + acceptance = self-concept
- importance of congruency between self-concept and actions
e.g. empathy, unconditional positive regard to encourage client to reach full potential
1177
guanine (G) and cytosine (C) form ___ hydrogen bonds, whereas adenine (A) base pairs with either thymine (T) or uracil (U) via ___ hydrogen bonds
three; two
1178
throughout the electron transport chain, protons are pumped ___ their concentration gradient from the ____ into the _____ but the ATP synthase flows protons into ___
against concentration gradient from mitochondrial matrix into inter-membrane space
ATP synthase brings protons back into the mitochondria matrix
1179
protease treatment hydrolyzes ___ bonds but not ___
peptide; disulfides
1180
with proteins loaded at the LOW pH end
proteins are fully protonated and positively charged (anode), causing them to migrate through the gel toward the negatively charged cathode
1181
when p-values are not given, groups are likely different if the mean +/- 2 SEM ranges
do NOT overlap
1182
proline is the only amino acid with
a secondary amino (imino) group
1183
creatine phosphate-dependent ATP production is a ___ phosphorylation event
substrate-level
1184
substrate-level phosphorylation
energy released from one reaction is directly coupled to the endergonic phosphorylation of ADP to produce ATP
- no external energy source
- net phosphoryl-transfer reaction
1185
tautomerization
movement of a proton from one position in a molecule to another + a shift in the position of a double bond to an adjacent atom
- consitutional isomers
1186
reversible reactions have a ___ delta G near ___; spontaneous irreversible reactions have a ___ delta G
reversible - small delta G near zero so reaction easily flows in both directions
spontaneous irreversible - large negative delta G
1187
nitrogen in amino acids and proteins is excreted as ___
urea by the urea cycle (occurs in liver)
1188
for glycolysis to continue, NAD+ can be regenerated by
- electron transport chain (mitochondria)
- fermentation (cytosol)
1189
gluconeogenesis occurs in
the liver
1190
Kcat and Km are ___ properties of an enzyme
intrinsic = not altered by a change in [E]
1191
Michaelis-Menten equation assumptions
during initial phase:
1. To ensure ES formation does no significantly impact [S], [E] < [S] and [E] < Km
2. [ES] remains constant but decreases once [S] becomes significantly depleted
3. irreversible until enough product accumulates
1192
avogadro
1 mol = 6.02 x 10^23 ions
1193
when the product of the ion concentrations in the solution = Ksp
equilibrium; saturated solution
1194
when the product of the ion concentrations in the solution > Ksp
precipitation
1195
when the product of the ion concentrations in the solution < Ksp
dissolution
1196
common ion effect
if a solution contains two compounds that have an ion in common, the common ion supplied by one compound will perturb the equilibrium position of the other compound, causing the equilibrium to shift toward the reactants (undissolved salt)
=> decreases the solubility of both compounds and cause precipitation of the other salt
1197
___ molecular geometry formed in a coordination complex
octahedral
6 bonding electron domains and 0 nonbonding electron pairs
1198
the dipole moment ___ as charge separation distance increases
increases
1199
dipole interactions strengths
strongest to weakest:
ion-dipole
dipole-dipole
dipole-induced dipole
1200
atoms with small atomic radii can form ____ bonds
short, strong
1201
stereotype boost/lift
when POSITIVE stereotypes about social groups cause IMPROVED performance
1202
ascribed status
assigned social position
eg. race
1203
achieved status
attained social position
eg. doctor
1204
master status
dominant social position
eg. ex-convict
1205
anhedonia
lack of pleasure
1206
mania - bipolar disorder
increased energy or agitation, flight of ideas, feelings of grandiosity, reduced need for sleep, distractibility, and/or impulsive or reckless behavior
1207
state-dependent vs. context-dependent memory effects
state effects = internal cues, mood
context effects = external cues, environment
1208
age-related cognitive effects in older adults
declines in episodic memory, recall, processing speed, divided attention, prospective memory (remembering to do things in future) and fluid intelligence (ability to creatively solve new problems & see new patterns)
stable recognition and procedural memory
improved semantic memory, emotional reasoning, and crystallized intelligence (ability to apply established skills or knowledge)
1209
reminiscent bump
older adults tend to recall events from their youth and younger adulthood more easily than events that happened later
1210
memory decay - forgetting curve
initial rate of decay is fastest (highest percent decrease in retention rate), and rate of decay slows over time
1211
sociological approaches to aging
activity theory: remaining physically & socially active improves QOL for elderly
continuity theory: older adults attempt to maintain the habits & behaviors from their youth
disengagement: older adults withdraw from social relationships/society as society withdraws from them
life course: aging viewed holistically in terms of social, biological, cultural, and psychological contexts
1212
dependency ratio
[(# child dependents) + (# retired dependents)]/(# people in workforce) x 100
= proportion of unproductive to productive (working-age) members in a society
1213
social exchange theory
human relationships result from people's perceptions of what they invest in a relationship and what they get out of it
1214
melatonin
synthesized and secreted in pineal gland
- plasma melatonin level peaks during sleep but remains low during waking hours
1215
parasomnia
- common in children
- abnormal function of nervous system during sleep
- somnambulism, night terrors
1216
dyssomnia
- common in adults
- interference with quality or timing of sleep
- insomnia, sleep apnea, narcolepsy
1217
suprachiasmatic nucleus
- hypothalamus
- regulates circadian pacemaker
- downregulates melatonin production by pineal gland when light levels are high
- upregulates melatonin production by pineal gland when light levels are low
1218
anterior pituitary
- controlled by hypothalamus via hypophyseal portal system
- synthesizes and secretes hormones like FSH, growth hormone, ACTH
1219
posterior pituitary
- made of axonal projections from hypothalamus
- secretes oxytocin and vasopressin
1220
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
overcoming conflict at each stage, room for growth throughout life
1. infancy (0-1): trust vs. mistrust
2. early childhood (1-3): autonomy vs. shame/doubt
3. play age (3-6): initiative vs. guilt
4. school age (6-12): industry vs. inferiority
5. adolescence (12-20): identity vs. confusion
6. early adulthood (20-40): intimacy vs. isolation
7. middle age (40-65): generativity vs. stagnation
8. old age (>= 65): integrity vs. despair
1221
REM duration
25% REM, 75% NREM
time spent in REM varies, increasing in duration for each subsequent sleep cycle with the last cycle containing the most REM sleep
1222
anterograde amnesia
one cannot form new memories after the incident that caused the amnesia
1223
retrograde amnesia
one cannot access memories that were encoded before the incident that caused the amnesia
1224
visible light
purple: 400-450 nm
blue: 450-490 nm
green: 490-565 nm
yellow: 565-590 nm
orange: 590-650 nm
red: 650-740 nm
perceived color is complementary to color of wavelength that is maximally absorbed by that substance
yellow-purple
orange-blue
red-green
1225
a compound's boiling point does NOT directly impact its inherent
reactivity
1226
imine
comparable to ketone; composed of C=N with either a H atom or an R group attached to the N atom
1227
amide
carboxylic acid derivative with a carbonyl carbon atom bonded to an amine group
1228
enamine
contain an amine group bonded to an alkene
1229
imide
functional group with N atom bonded to two acyl groups (two carbonyl carbon atoms)
1230
anomers
differ in configuration at the anomeric carbon only
-> alpha and beta designations refer to different orientations of the OH group at the anomeric carbon (alpha = OH down, beta = OH up)
1231
high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
- optimal for small sample sizes
- solvent (mobile phase) under pressure
- separates compounds based on polarity
- good for separating small organic molecules like individual amino acids and dipeptides because small changes in chemical structure can result in large changes in affinity for the column
1232
ethyl acetate
- immiscible with water
- polar/organic liquid
1233
amides, amines, and compounds that contain an odd number of N atoms have a molecular ion with an
odd m/z and fragments with an even m/z
1234
in a fractional distillation, the initial distillate will be enriched in the ____ component that was placed in the distillation flask
lowest-boiling
1235
if all three hydrocarbon tails are different, ___ fatty acid salts are released
three unique
1236
esters are formed by
Fischer esterification, an acid-catalyzed reaction of an alcohol with a carboxylic acid
-oate
1237
condensation of two carboxylic acids forms
anhydrides
1238
lens strength
S = 1/f -> units of diopters (D)
f = focal length
lenses can be combined to achieve different values of S -> additive
1239
speeds of all x-rays in a vacuum equal
speed of light, c = 3 x 10^8 m/s
1240
electric field lines point to the ___ voltage
point to the lowest voltage and away from the highest voltage
1241
electron at rest in an electric field has a potential energy equal to
q*V
q = electron charge
V = voltage of the field
1242
myopia can be corrected with a
diverging lens, which creates virtual, reduced, and upright images
1243
refractive index of light ___ with its frequency
increases
=> violet light is higher in frequency compared to red (shorter wavelength) so it will refract more
1244
thin lens equation
1/f = 1/o + 1/i
o = distance to object
i = distance to image
f and i are positive for converging lenses and negative for diverging lenses
1245
nearsightedness
- images forms in front of retina
- light bends too much
- corrected by concave/diverging lens
1246
specific gravity from weights in air and water
density of lens/density of water
V lens = V water
SG = (lens density)*g*(lens V)/(water density)*g*(water V) = weight in air/buoyant force
buoyant force = weight in air - weight in water
1247
spacing of single slit diffraction pattern
directly proportional to wavelength and inversely proportional to slit width
sin theta = (m*lamba)/alpha
theta = angle of dark bands
m = integers
alpha = width of slit
1248
capacitance with dielectric
C = k*C0
k = dielectric constant
C0 = capacitance of vacuum
1249
capacitance C
C = Q/V
Q = charge
V = voltage
proportional to area/distance
1250
in warmer temperature, sound wave has a ___ frequency and ___ wave speed
high; faster
1251
in colder temperature, sound wave has a ___ frequency and ___ wave speed
low; slower
1252
tears and bile are ___ secretions
exocrine - released onto an "exterior" body surface such as skin or inner surface of gut or lungs
1253
amino acids that are the most common phosphorylation sites
serine, threonine, and tyrosine (have hydroxyl groups)
1254
hydroxyls, thiols and amines commonly act as
nucleophiles
1255
animal cells store glucose as glycogen because
it reduces the osmotic pressure exerted on the cell membrane
1256
disaccharides have __ anomeric carbons
two
1257
for a sugar to be of the D form, the stereocenter ___ from the anomeric carbon must have the R configuration
farthest
1258
reducing sugar
sugar with a free anomeric carbon
1259
branched amino acids (have branched alkyl side groups)
isoleucine, leucine, valine
1260
liver glycogenolysis enzymes
1. glycogen phosphorylase (rate-limiting step)
2. debranching enzyme
4. phosphoglucomutase (G1P -> G6P)
5. glucose 6-phosphatase (G6P -> glucose)
glycogen -> glucose 1-P -> glucose 6-P -> glucose
1261
glucagon stimulates release of ___ residues from liver glycogen
phosphorylated glucose released from nonreducing ends of glycogen branches
increases glycogenolysis
-> liver releases glucose in response to glucagon
1262
allosteric modulators bind their targets reversibly via __ interactions at sites outside the active site
noncovalent
1263
peptide hormones bind
membrane receptors so requires second messenger on cytosolic side of membrane
- hydrophilic
1264
steroid hormones
diffuse through membrane so no second messenger
- hydrophobic
- derived from cholesterol
- characteristic backbone structure consisting of three 6-membered rings and one 5-membered ring fused together
1265
fluid and lipid transport through lymphatic system
interstitial fluid -> lymph capillaries -> lymph vessels -> lymph duct -> vein near heart
1266
urination
urine produced in nephrons within each kidney -> funneled into ureters connected to bladder
- smooth muscle of detrusor muscle relaxed while urine is stored in bladder and contracts to push urine out
- smooth muscle of internal urethral sphincter relaxes to allow urine through
- skeletal muscle of external urethral sphincter must also relax (voluntary) to allow urine through
1267
kidney function
- control of extracellular fluid volume and regulation of blood pressure via renin-angiotensin system
- regulation of osmolarity
- regulation of ion concentration by balancing dietary ion intake with urinary excretion
- regulation of pH via bicarbonate buffer system
- excretion of waste (creatinine, ammonia, urea, foreign substances)
- production of renin and hormones (erythropoietin and calcitriol)
1268
cytokinesis
after mitosis, cell membrane divides to allow formation of two daughter cells
1269
thyroid hormones
1. in response to low thyroid hormone levels, hypothalamus secretes TRH
2. TRH acts on anterior pituitary -> release TSH
3. TSH binds TSH receptors on cells of thyroid gland -> release thyroid hormones
4. T3 and T4 released
1270
cholesterol structure
hydrophilic hydroxyl group + four fused hydrophobic rings
1271
a protein may be able to transport multiple types of molecules that have __ properties but typically can only interact with one of these molecules at a time, so the rate of transport of one molecule may be decreased by the presence of __ molecules, which __ for interaction with the transport protein
similar; similar; compete
1272
non-reducing sugar
no free anomeric carbons
1273
pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
catalyzes conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA in a decarboxylation reaction
- links glycolysis to citric acid cycle
1274
fatty acid synthesis net reaction
In cytosol:
7 ATP + 8 Acetyl-CoA + 14 NADPH -> 7 ADP + 7 Pi + 8 CoA-SH + Palmitate + 14NADP+ 6 H2O
Acetyl-CoA from glycolysis -> pyruvate
NADPH from PPP
1275
rate-limiting step of FA oxidation
acyl-Coa + carnitine -> acylcarnitine -> then transported to mitochondrial matrix and converted to acyl-CoA -> Acetyl-CoA (beta-oxidation)
enzyme: CPT = carnitine palmitoyltransferase I
1276
insulin activates lipid synthesis by:
- pyruvate dehydrogenase: pyruvate -> acetyl-CoA
- acetyl-CoA decarboxylase: acetyl-CoA -> malonyl-CoA
- fatty acid synthase: malonyl-CoA -> palmitate
1277
protein catabolism
transamination to remove amino group -> produce alpha-keto acid and glutamate
-> deaminated, releasing ammonia (NH3) which enters urea cycle
1278
glucogenic vs ketogenic amino acids
glucogenic: converted to pyruvate or citric acid cycle intermediates -> converted to glucose
ketogenic: converted directly to acetyl-CoA -> enter citric acid cycle or used to form ketone bodies
1279
zymogens
enzymes that must be cleaved to be active
1280
apoenzyme
not bound to cofactor and inactive
1281
holoenzyme
bound to its cofactor (e.g. metal ion) and active
1282
coenzyme
non-protein molecule required for enzyme to function
1283
for proteases, water is ____ during the reaction
consumed
hydrolysis - water consumed to cleave bond
1284
lock-and-key theory
enzyme's active site is already in proper structural conformation to allow substrate to bind readily and form an active ES complex
=> no conformational changes necessary
1285
induced fit model
conformational change is induced when the substrate binds the active site -> formation of functional ES complex in induced form
=> requires energy input
1286
increased order = __ entropy = ___ delta S
decreased; negative
1287
protein folding increases ____ and delta S is ___
disorder; positive
because hydrophobic molecules on the surface of unfolded proteins force water to form a rigid solvation layer
- H2O molecules surrounding hydrophilic residues are highly disordered, but side chains of hydrophobic amino acids cannot form hydrogen bonds with water and are highly ordered => solvation layer
- unfolded proteins expose their hydrophobic residues to the aqueous environment => surrounding water molecules form highly ordered solvation layers
- as proteins fold, hydrophobic residues aggregate together in the buried core of the protein => HYDROPHOBIC INTERACTIONS minimize highly ordered solvation layer
1288
transcription activators facilitate ____ binding to the promoter
RNA polymerase
1289
is DNA polymerase involved in transcription?
no, involved in replication
1290
telomere sequence
5'-TTAGGG-3'
1291
kinetochore
protein-DNA complex to which spindle fibers made of microtubules attach during metaphase of mitosis
1292
proteasome
- found in cytosol
- degrades ubiquitinated proteins
1293
initial digestion of triglyceride by
lingual lipase (oral cavity)
triglyceride -> monoglyceride and fatty acids
1294
initial digestion of carbohydrate by
salivary amylase (oral cavity)
1294
initial digestion of polypeptide by
pepsin (stomach)
gastric chief cells release zymogen (inactive) pepsinogen, which is converted to active pepsin by mixing with HCl (parietal cells) in gastric juice
1295
intermediate filaments allow cells to withstand ___ force
mechanical
e.g. keratin, lamin
1296
prokaryotes have ___ DNA with ___ origin of replication in the cytoplasm
circular; singular
1297
eukaryotes have ___ DNA with ___ origin of replication in the nucleus
linear; multiple
1298
DNA replication
topoisomerase: introduce negative supercoiling in DNA double helix to reduce strain produced by unwinding (positive supercoiling)
DNA helicase: unwinds DNA double helix
ssDNA-binding protein: binds to each strand to prevent spontaneous reannealing of unwound ssDNA
primase: synthesizes RNA primers
DNA polymerase: synthesizes daughter strands in a 5' -> 3' direction only
DNA ligase: joins Okazaki fragments (binds two DNA fragments via phosphodiester bonds)z
1299
during replication, the __ OH from the __ nucleotide of the ___ strand attacks the __ PO4 group of the ___ dNTP
the 3' OH from the last nucleotide of the growing strand attacks the 5' PO4 group of the incoming dNTP
=> forms covalent phosphodiester bond + release of PPi and energy
1300
cDNA cloning
reverse transcriptase use dNTP to bind mRNA and generate single-stranded cDNA
-> cDNA amplified using DNA polymerase and PCR
-> cDNA sequences containing gene of interest can be inserted into a cloning vector
-> foreign cDNA and vector cut by restriction enzyme to generate complementary sticky ends that anneal when both molecules are mixed together
-> DNA ligase joins cDNA to vector
1301
depolarizing current reaches sarcoplasmic reticulum by traveling down
T tubules
1302
ribosomal RNA is amplified via
transcription
1303
most RNA arises from ___ DNA sequences coding for rRNA
repetitive
-> telomeres, tRNA, rRNA, transposable elements
1304
increase in aquaporins in the collecting duct cells of the kidneys would ___ resabsorption of water in the nephrons
increase
1305
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin
released from posterior pituitary and promotes water reabsorption by kidneys when BP falls
-> raise blood volume and BP
1306
lytic cycle
1. attachment: bacteriophage contacts bacterial cell wall and attaches to host bacterium
2. viral genome entry
3. host genome degradation into nucleotide components to provide building blocks for replication of viral genome
4. synthesis: host machinery (ribosomes) begins to synthesize components needed for new viral progeny, which then assemble inside host cell
5. release: newly assembled viral progeny (virions) released as bacterium disintegrates (lysis) due to lysozymes
1307
lysogenic cycle
bacteriophages can attach to bacterium and can also integrate genome into host DNA
1308
kidney: blood enters via
renal arteries -> afferent arterioles -> glomerular capillaries (surrounded by Bowman's capsule to collect filtered substances) -> efferent arterioles -> renal veins
1309
neutrophils play a role in ___ immunity
innate (nonspecific)
- phagocytosis
- degranulation
- neutrophil extracellular trap release
- cytokine secretion
1310
innate immune cells
neutrophils, macrophages, natural killer cells
can respond to many types of antigens and signals of cellular stress
1311
at low O2 affinity, hemoglobin is in ___ state
T = tense conformation; unbound O2
unfavorable for O2 binding, reluctant to bind to first O2 molecule
1312
at high O2 affinity, hemoglobin is in ___ state
R
R = Relaxed conformation; bound O2
favorable for O2 binding
1313
2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG) ___ hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen
decreases
-> decrease O2 binding, increase O2 release into tissues
2, 3-BPG stabilizes the deoxy (T) conformation of hemoglobin
1314
bisphophoglycerate mutase
converts 1,3-BPG to 2,3-BPG
1315
CO2 ___ affinity of hemoglobin for O2
decreases
1316
____ muscles and ___ muscles have gap junctions
smooth and cardiac
=> cells can transfer APs directly to adjacent cells
1317
endoskeleton vs exoskeleton
endoskeleton (e.g. humans):
- living and nonliving components
- internal scaffold protects soft tissues like organs and serves as an attachment point for skeletal muscle
- grows as organism grows
- connective tissue
- arise from embryonic mesoderm
exoskeleton (invertebrates):
- nonliving components only (e.g. chitin)
- hard outer covering that surrounds and protects soft tissue underneath
- shed and regenerated as organism grows
1318
___ configuration introduces a kink in the fatty acid chain
cis
1319
prolonged starvation
utilization of ketone bodies by the brain as fuel
excess acetyl-CoA that accumulates beyond what is needed for the liver can be converted to ketone bodies
- glycogen stores are depleted within 12-24 hours of fasting
1320
phospholipid structure
polar head group + backbone + hydrophobic tail
- can be separated by mass, charge, and/or solubility
1321
hydrolyzable lipids
- triaglycerols
- emulsifying agents
- sphingolipids
- waxes
- phospholipids
1322
nonhydrolyzable lipids
- steroids
- prostaglandins
- fat-soluble vitamins
1323
emulsification
lipid processing begins in small intestine (duodenum) where bile salts break down lipid globules into smaller droplets
-> forms micelles, which increase surface area of lipids available for hydrolysis by lipases
1324
in cancer, tumor suppressor genes become inactivates by loss of function mutations in ___ alleles
both
but proto-oncogenes are mutated into ongenes via activating mutations in one or two alleles
1325
DNA annealing speed depends on
length, pH, and salt content
- longer strands -> more H bonds -> more time to reanneal
- physiological pH -> max H bonding; low pH -> double helix separation b/c H bond acceptor becomes protonated; high pH -> deprotonation of H bond donors in bases
- high salt concentration increases double helix stability because it neutralizes electrostatic repulsions
1326
catabolic fate of glycerol
glycerol -> glycerol 3-phosphate -> dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) -> glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate -> glycolysis or gluconeogenesis (anabolic)
1327
catabolic fate of fatty acids
fatty acid oxidation (in mitochondria)
1328
degradation of glycogen begins with
phosphorolysis - removes individual glucose subunits from linear regions
glycogen phosphorylase breaks alpha-1,4 bonds by adding inorganic phosphate at carbon 1 of the terminal glucose unit
1329
lactate -> pyruvate ->
acetyl-CoA (CO2 released, mitochondria) -> citric acid cycle
1330
anabolic hormones like insulin, GH, testosterone, and estrogen ___ FA oxidation (catabolism)
inhibit
=> promote anabolism (FA synthesis)
-> sugar storage, lipid storage, muscle growth
1331
catabolic hormones like glucagon, cortisol, and epinephrine ____ FA oxidation
stimulate
=> promote sugar release, lipid release & oxidation, muscle energy use
1332
1333
NADPH is used in FA ___
synthesis
1334
compared to the neutral atom of a given element, its cation will be ___ but its anion will be ___
smaller; larger
losing electrons to form a cation causes remaining e- to experience a greater Zeff, pulling e- closer to the nucleus whereas gaining electrons to form an anion produces greater electronic repulsion and nuclear shielding, which pushes e- farther from the nucleus
1335
water electrolysis is
nonspontaneous, only occurs when power source is on
1336
average amount of current applied during an interval in an electrolytic cell
= (mol x # of e- transferred x Faraday's constant)/time
1337
electrons are generally lost first from the shell that is ___ from the nucleus (___ value of n)
farthest; highest
so 4s lost before 3d
1338
why is hemoglobin red when it binds to O2_
O2 interacts with iron's d orbitals
-> nature of O2 ligand changes energy of iron's d orbitals, causing heme to reflect red light and absorb blue-green light
1339
Fe in oxygenated hemoglobin has ___ coordinate bonds
six
four to N atoms in porphyrin ring, one to histidine from globin, and one to O2
1340
if burning splint test made a sound of a pop, this indicates the ignition of
hydrogen gas
1341
if growing splint burned more brightly in the gas that was produced when catalyst was added, this indicates that one of the products must be ___
O2
(if extinguished when placed in gas, must be CO2)
1342
-log ( A x 10^-B)
p value = B - 0.A
1343
disproportionation reaction
special case of redox reaction in which both the oxidation and reduction occur to atoms of the SAME element
1344
STP
22.4 L/mol
273K, 1 atm
1345
law of mass action
for dynamic equilibrium: rate of reaction is proportional to the molar amount of each reaction component raised to the power of its reaction order
-> for elementary rxns, rxn order of each species is equal to its stoichiometric coefficient
1346
when a battery is discharging, a ___ redox rxn occurs, producing an electric current (battery operates as a ____ cell)
spontaneous; galvanic
1347
when a battery is charging, an electric current supplied from an external source is used to drive a ___ redox rxn (battery operates as a ____ cell)
nonspontaneous; electrolytic
1348
the applied external potential to charge a battery must be ___ than the average cell potential of the battery when discharged
greater
1349
forming a bond is an ___ process
exothermic (negative delta H)
1350
breaking a bond is an ___ process
endothermic (positive delta H)
1351
the bond dissociation energy of a sigma bond of a double bond is ___ than that of a pi bond of the double bond
greater (more stable, lower energy state)
1352
higher E cell (reduction half-reaction)
stronger oxidizing agent, weaker reducing agent
1353
lower (more negative) E cell in reduction half-reaction
stronger reducing agent, weaker oxidizing agent
1354
at equivalence point
all the analyte in the solution has been oxidized
1355
at half-equivalence point
titrant volume is half the amount required to reach the equivalence point and the molar concentrations of the non-oxidized analyte and oxidized analyte are equal
1356
buffering region
flat portion of curve, pH = pKa
1357
vapor pressure of a liquid decreases at any given temperature when a nonvolatile solute is dissolved in the liquid because
solute molecules reduce the amount of surface area available for the liquid molecules to occupy and escape into the gas phase
=> higher temperature (boiling point) required for vapor pressure to reach same ambient temperature and begin to boil
1358
why does the Doppler effect occur?
the motion of the observer or waveform source relative to each other leads to a shift in only the apparent, perceived velocity of the sound waveform as successive waveform crests and troughs are perceived closer together or farther apart
1359
pressure = force *
area
1360
mechanical advantage
F0/Fi = di/d0
F0 = output force
Fi = input force
ratio of mg/F
1361
Hooke's law
F elastic = -k*x
elastic force of perfectly elastc materials
1362
wave speed depends only on the
medium (physical properties like temperature, density, pressure, elasticity)
1363
when the upper limit of static friction is reached
motion initiated, static friction is replaced with kinetic friction as object begins to slide
upper limit = coefficient of static friction*normal force
1364
the work done by a CONSERVATIVE FORCE (gravity, electrostatic, etc) depends on the ____ the force is applied
net displacement
1365
final velocity (car)
v^2 = (v0)^2 + 2*a*(delta x)
1366
an object's ability to resist changes in speed depends on its
inertia
1367
linear polarization filter
allows transmission of EM radiation oriented parallel to axis of polarization but inhibits passage of radiation oriented perpendicular to the axis
polarization is unique to transverse waves
1368
gas-liquid chromatography
- gas mobile phase and liquid stationary phase
- separate based on boiling points
- vaporized compounds travel through heated oven column
- higher molecular weight -> higher b.p. -> longer retention time
- first peak to emerge will be from most polar, voltaile compound
1369
electric field lines point from ___ charges to ___ charges
from positive charges to negative charges
1370
electric field E =
(voltage difference)/distance
= Force/charge
{V/m}
E = F/q = V/d
1371
centripetal force
F = (m*v^2)/r
1372
Lorentz force
force exerted on an ion in a magnetic field
F = q*v*B
v = velocity
direction of magnetic force is perpendicular to both velocity and direction of magnetic field
=> right-hand rule
1373
resisitivity
R = (resistivity*L)/A
A = area
1374
higher chemical shift
- more substituted carbon
- closer to EN atom (decrease effects of shielding or greater inductive deshielding)
1375
mass spectrometer can only detect ___ molecules and fragments
charged
=> radicals are not detected
1376
upon interactions with UV light of sufficient energy, pi and nonbonding electrons (higher in energy than pi) are excited to the LUMO called the ___ orbital
pi* antibondng
1377
conjugated molecules ___ UV light
absorb
more conjugated = higher max wavelength of absorbance
1378
electrons ___ to an ___ state when absorbing UV light
jump; excited
1379
if electrons fall from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, light is
emitted
1380
primary amine
one nonhydrogen substitutent
1381
shielded molecules have ___ signals
upfield: 0-2 ppm
proton surrounded by electron cloud
1382
characteristic absorption frequencies for carboxylic acids
- 3300-2400 cm^-1 (very broad O-H stretch)
- 1710 cm^-1 (strong C=O stretch)
1383
gas constant R
8.31 J/mol*K
= 0.08 L*atm/mol*K
1384
fraction submerged of a floating object
(displaced volume)/(object volume)
= (object density)/(fluid density)
1385
specific gravity
(density of substance)/(density of water)
1386
viscosity
intrinsic property of a fluid that characterizes the amount of friction resisting motion inside the fluid itself
1387
continuity equation
A1*V1 = A2*V2
blood velocity is inversely proportional to diameter (area)
1388
high systolic blood pressure increases stress on
arteries
1389
coefficient of expansion
change in length = (coefficient of expansion)*length*(change in temperature)
1390
Venturi effect
decreased pressure associated with increased velocity of a fluid flowing in a pipe - special case of Bernoulli in which height of fluid is constant
PA + 0.5(rho*v^2)A = PB + 0.5(rho*v^2)B
1391
reactivity in SN1 reactions
fastest to slowest:
tertiary
secondary
primary
methyl
tertiary carbons form stable tertiary carbocations in SN1 rxns and undergo reactions more readily
1392
electrophiles
- attracted to electrons
- partial positive charge
1393
___ halogens are better leaving groups than ___ halogens
larger; small
because they can spread negative charge conferred by electrons over larger surface area and stabilize negative charge upon anion formation
1394
Z alkene
highest priority groups on same side of double bond
1395
highest priority groups on opposite sides of double bond
E
1396
the designations L and D are relative configurations of the
highest number chiral carbon
1397
peptide bond formation
carboxyl group + amino group
1398
peptide bond is formed through a
dehydration reaction (H2O released)
1399
isoprene
five carbons: four-carbon linear chain with a one-carbon branch - pi bonds (double bonds) so terpenes have a total # of carbons that is a multiple of five
1400
1401
anomeric carbon
carbon with two bonds to oxygen
C1 - aldoses
C2 - ketoses
1402
smaller lactam rings have ___ ring strain and ____ wavenumber IR absorptions for carbonyl groups
greater (less resonance contribution); larger
1403
H2O is not a good nucleophile, but __ is
OH
1404
formation of a ketal must be ___-catalyzed
acid because it protonates the OH group to form H2O, a good leaving group
1405
a carboxylic acid cannot undergo decarboxylation if it does not contain a
beta-carbonyl
1406
glyceraldehyde
one aldehyde + two hydroxyl groups
1407
kinetic enolate vs thermodynamic enolate
kinetic -> deprotonation of least substituted alpha-carbon (e.g. large bulky base like LDA and lower reaction temp.)
thermodynamic -> deprotonation of more substituted alpha-carbon (e.g. small base like NaH and higher reaction temp.)
1408
fatty acyl group
long hydrocarbon chain + carbonyl of a fatty acid that has been coupled to other biomolecules
1409
keto-enol tautomerization
acid-catalyzed:
- proton removal from alpha-carbon of ketone or aldehyde
- addition of proton to carbonyl oxygen atom
- pi bond migrates from C=O double bond to form a C=C double bond between carbonyl carbon and alpha-carbon
can also be base-catalyzed
1410
ribose has ___ carbons
five
1411
sugar configuration
- anomeric carbon -> lowest number possible (epimers: alpha = anomeric C on opposite side of ring plane as substituent of highest numbered chiral center, beta = same side)
- L or D based on configuration of chiral center with highest number
1412
appetitive stimulus
desirable to the individual, increase the frequency of the response that they are contingent upon
1413
schizophrenia symptoms
positive: hallucinations, delusions, disorganized/incoherent speech, disorganized/agitated behavior
negative: apathy, social withdrawal, flat affect, lack of speech, anhedonia
1414
secondary alcohols are formed when an aldehyde reacts with a
Grignard reagent (e.g. methylmagnesium bromide)
1415
Grignard reagent
with formaldehyde (CH2O, 0 alkyl groups) -> form primary alcohol
with aldehydes (one alkyl group) -> form secondary alcohol
with ketones (two alkyl groups) -> form tertiary alcohol
1416
aldol addition
two carbonyl compounds (ketones and/or aldehydes) are joined together by a nucleophilic addition to form either a beta-hydroxy ketone or aldehyde as the aldol product
- part of aldol condensation:e
-> if heat applied, dehydration of aldol product occurs and forms alpha, beta-unsaturated carbonyl compound
1417
nativist theory of language development
importance of language exposure during critical period in early life
1418
social cognitive theory
people learn through observing others (vicarious learning)
1419
influx of Na+ across the motor end plate occurs when Na+ ion channels bind
acetylcholine
1420
palindromic sequence
read the same sequence from 5' to 3' in one strand and in the complementary strand
For sequences to be palindromic, the 5’ 3’ of one strand must match 5’ to 3’ of the other strand.
ex: AAGCTT
1421
GTPases are activated by
GTP
1422
neurotransmitters are manufactured in
neurons
1423
agent of socialization
parts of society that are important for socialization (process of LEARNING social norms and values)
1424
proximal stimulus
stimulus registered by sensory receptors (e.g. pattern of light falling on the retina)
1425
distal stimulus
external object or event in the environment that is being perceived, such as objects, sounds, or smells, which are located at a distance from an individual.
1426
psychophysical testing methods
- Methods of Limits
- directly assesses our perception of stimuli in relation to their true physical properties
1427
false memory
inaccurate but reported with extreme confidence
1428
by-product of reaction of an amine with carboxylic acid anhydride
acidic carboxylic acid
1429
electron configuration of Co(II)
[Ar] 3d^7
formed from loss of two electrons from 4s electrons because highest subshell
1430
deprotonation of water will make it more
nucleophilic
1431
Alanine
- small hydrophobic side chain (methyl group)
- participates in alpha helices and beta sheets
- can be used to reduce the interaction of the side chain with other active site components
1432
phosphodiester bonds
link adjacent nucleotides in DNA
1433
enzyme more effectively inhibits uncompetitive inhibitors when
- substrate concentration is increased -> because uncompetitive inhibitors bind target E only when S is first bound to E so if more ES complex, inhibitor can work more effectively
- inhibitor concentration is increased
1434
transmembrane helices are made up of mostly unbroken stretches of ___ amino acids
hydrophobic
1435
cultural capital
knowledge, skills, education, and similar characteristics that are used to make social distinctions and that are associated with differences in social status
1436
for MCAT: experimental studies demonstrate a cause-effect relationship when comparing the experimental and control group, eliminate correlation answers right off the bat. for observational studies, eliminate cause/effect answers.
ok
1437
universal emotions
happy sad FADS
- happy
- sad
- fear
- anger
- disgust
- surprise
1438
infants begin to express stranger anxiety at around
8 months old
1439
place theory
one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea's basilar membrane
1440
poly-A tail is added to
3' end of mRNA
1441
liver synthesizes bile
-> stored in ___
-> released into __
stored in gallbladder and released into duodenum (small intestine)
1442
large intestine
cecum
-> ascending colon
-> transverse colon
-> descending colon
-> sigmoid colon
-> rectum
1443
leptin
energy-rich state: released by adipocytes to suppress satiety by communicating to hypothalamus
1444
ghrelin
energy-poor state (fasting): released by gastric cells (stomach) to stimulate appetite by communicating to the hypothalamus
1445
signal sequence domain
required for proteins directed toward secretory pathways
mature RNA sequence for a protein that is secreted or that will locate to the cell membrane will contain the signal sequence, which is located on the 5' region and will signal the ribosome that translation needs to be continued in the rough ER
1446
nuclear factors
vary in different cells so can confer temporal and spatial regulation of their target genes
1447
___ aa present at dimerization interface
hydrophobic b/c side chains are free -> polar and charged aa most likely interact w/ water molecules in cytosol and not involved in protein-protein interaction
1448
separate based on charge
- isoelectric focusing (pH at which net charge of protein = 0 )
- ion exchange chromatography
1449
enzyme used in gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis
glucos 6-phosphate (final step)
1450
cDNA cloning
- DNA polymerase (DNA amplification)
- DNA ligase (ligation of cDNA to DNA vector)
- reverse transcriptase (reverse transcription of RNA to cDNA)
1451
negative priming requires the use of
implicit memory
1452
bond that links monosaccharides together in an oligosaccharide
glycoside bond (special type of acetal linkage)
1453
titration
use varying volumes of a solution of known concentration with a known volume of solution of unknown concentration
usually: "X is titrated with Y" means X is unknown concentration and Y is titration
1454
dependent stressor
stressful event(s) that an individual influences
1455
independent stressor
stressful event that occurs without the person's influence
e.g. death of a family member
1456
due to the brain's capacity for parallel processing, information about ____, ___ and ____ of events is automatically processed; however, conscious effort is needed to process ____ information
space, time, and frequency
novel
1457
stress generation hypothesis
individuals who are prone to depression are more likely to exhibit behaviors and cognitions that lead to stressful situations
- role of negative life events that are influenced by the individual's behavior
- does not assume that people can rid their lives of stressful events
1458
information from right visual field (right eye) is sent to
the left hemisphere through the optical tract
-> after info is received, then the corpus callosum exchanges info back and forth (e.g. to right hemisphere)
images perceived by the right eye's TEMPORAL side stay on the RIGHT hemisphere, but the NASAL side goes to the LEFT hemisphere
1459
media can function as an agent of socialization by
transmitting values and beliefs about acceptable behaviors
1460
cross-sectional study
data collected at one time point
1461
sanctions
- positive or negative
- formal or informal
- external or internal
social control: social entities and individuals ensure compliance of individuals with social norms through positive and negative sanctions
1462
succinyl-CoA synthetase
succinyl-CoA -> succinate
by product: GTP
1463
acetyl-CoA -> malonyl-CoA
by Acetyl-CoA carboxylase
1464
thymine has a ___ group
methyl group + 2 carbonyl groups
1465
adenine has ___ carbonyl group
no
1466
use of histine tagging and nickel column is a form of ___ chromatography
affinity
1467
each mole of NADH can ____ _____ mole of disulfide bonds
reduce 1 mole
1468
anionic (negatively charged) protein would bind to a ____ exchange column
anion
1469
melting temperature
temperature at which 50% of molecules are denature (aka fraction folded = 1/2)
1470
pyruvate is ___ to lactate
reduced
1471
galactose
- C4 epimer of glucose
- six carbon aldose
1472
ionic strength and positive ions in solution leads to ___ of DNA fold
stabilization via shielding of repulsion between phosphate groups within DNA backbone
1473
homodimer would show as __ band in native PAGE and ___ band in SDS-PAGE
one; one
both preservation and disruption of the quaternary structure results in a single gel band because the subunits of the dimer are the same molecular weight
1474
protein unfolding (denaturation) is a ___ process so it follows a ___ shape curve
cooperative; sigmoidal
1475
caspases
central to programmed cell death and inflammation response
cell death = high levels of caspases
1476
replication of positive-sense RNA
- not retrotranscribed
- does not integrate into host genome
- direct RNA translation of viral genome and synthesis of negative-strand RNA -> then replication of positive-strand RNA
- virus uses its own RNA to translate its proteins, then generates negative-sense RNA to produce more positive-sense RNA
1477
retrovirus
genome is retrotranscribed to integrate the host genome
- positive-sense
- inserted into host cell DNA using RNA-dependent DNA polymerase
1478
translation of viral genome to synthesize proteins
positive-sense RNA virus
1479
negative-sense RNA virus
uses RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to synthesize mRNA transcripts from viral genome
=> mRNA can then be translated to make proteins
1480
positive-sense RNA virus
direct translation of viral genome
1481
____ cells produce antibodies
plasma (B)
1482
areolar tissue
- loose connective tissue
- binds epithelium to underlying structures
1483
transitional eptithelum
can be stretched
-> makes up bladder and urinary tract
1484
respiratory tract lining
pseudostratified columnar epithelium: collects and removes particulates from respiratory tract
1485
an observational study ___ be used to establish causality
CANNOT
1486
differential association
learning of deviant behavior (violates norm) that results from continuous exposure to others that violate norms or laws - learn from observation of others
1487
chunking
strategy that increases the capacity of short-term memory by organizing the input into meaningful chunks
1488
trait-based theories
focus on role of stable personality traits to explain behavior and psychopathology
1489
encoding specificity
occurs when conditions at encoding match the conditions at retrieval and results in improved recall
1490
social facilitation
presence of an audience improves performance (opposite of social inhibition) due to increased arousal from having an audience
- audience usually improves performance on simple tasks, and hinders on difficult tasks
1491
scaffolding
- Vygotsky
- more experienced individual supporting the learning of someone less experienced
1492
incongruence
humanistic term that refers to the discrepancy between the actual and ideal selves
1493
resource mobilization theory
uses of resources and strategies for SOCIAL MOVEMENTS to achieve the goals desired by the groups involved
1494
isoelectric point (pI) calculation for two neutral side chains that ionize to a negative charge when there is only an unmodified N-terminus
[(pKa of side chain 1 + pka of side chain 2)]/2
1495
Ka and Kd are ___ related
inversely
1496
___ amino acid residues per full helical turn of an alpha-helix
3.6
1497
helical turns
A π-turn: hydrogen bond between the i and i + 5 end residues of the turn
A γ-turn: hydrogen bond between the i and i + 2 end residues of the turn.
A β-turn: hydrogen bond between the i and i + 3 end residues of the turn.
An α-turn: hydrogen bond between the i and i + 4 end residues of the turn.
1498
ferromagnetic materials
Fe, Ni, Co
1499
paramagnetic
Calcium has the electronic structure [Ar] 4s2. The presence of the empty d orbital can cause an electron from the last occupied s orbital to acquire energy in the presence of a magnetic field and jump on the empty d orbital. This creates an energy state with unpaired electrons [Ar] 4s1 4d1 that has paramagnetic properties.
1500
polylinker site
multiple cloning site: composed of several restriction enzyme recognition sites that can be digested with the corresponding restriction enzyme
1501
next to the basement membrane within the seminiferous tubule
sertoli cells or spermatogonia
1502
center of the lumen of the seminiferous tubules
spermatozoa
1503
between basement membrane and center of lumen within the seminiferous tubule
spermatocytes
1504
Barr body
forms upon inactivation of the X chromosome in cells containing two X chromosomes
- mature erythrocytes do NOT have a nucleus or DNA
1505
What do pepsin and trypsin have in common?
secreted as zymogens and then activated by cleavage in the lumen + hydrolyze proteins
pepsin:
- acidic pH
- produced by chief cells of stomach
trypsin:
- basic pH
- produced by pancreatic exocrine cells
1506
velocity of blood flow is ___ proportional to total cross-sectional area so
inversely
velocity of blood flow is slower in capillaries than in arteries because the total cross-sectional area of capillaries exceeds that of arteries
1507
lipase
hydrolyzes triacylglycerides
1508
important sugars
ribose: pentofuranose, C2 and C3 OH groups are cis, C3 OH group and C4 hydroxymethyl group are trans
xylose: pentofuranose, C2 and C3 OH groups are trans, C3 OH group and C4 hydroxymethyl group are cis
fructose: hexose, C2 and C3 OH groups are trans
arabinose: pentofuranose, C2 and C3 OH groups are trans
1509
ratio of the image height to the object height is equal to
the ratio of the lens-image distance to the object-lens distance (use thin lens equation)
1510
if a new solid forms when Al (s, metal strip) is mixed with Zn2+ (aq, metal ion)
Al (s) is more susceptible to OXIDATION
Zn is more susceptible to REDUCTION
1511
nuclear localization signal
sequence that tags the protein for it to be transported into the nucleus
1512
oligosaccharides are chains of
carbohydrates
1513
collecting duct
final structure in which water reabsorption occurs, which concentrates filtrate
-> medullary portion is last portion of the tubules where reabsorption can occur so it contains the most concentrated glomerular filtrate that will correspond to urine
1514
three pressures that work together to regulate filtration in the glomerulus
- glomerular capillary pressure (force filtrate from capillary into Bowman's capsule)
- capillary hydrostatic pressure
- blood colloid osmotic pressure
1515
enzymes alter the rate of chemical reactions by
- co-localizing substrates
- altering local pH
- altering substrate shape
1516
high levels of circulating glucocorticoids will increase
protein degradation in various tissues
=> muscle weakness
1517
gluconeogenesis is increased when
- cortisol levels are high
- carbohydrate stores are low (since glucose is a carbohydrate)
1518
endomembrane system
portion of cells that is in charge of modifying proteins that will be secreted
1519
for energy, brain uses
glucose transporters that are insulin INDEPENDENT
- brain is UNABLE to use fatty acids
- it is the main consumer of glucose in the body
1520
using proteins and lipids as a source of glucose
- increased appetite
- sweet-tasting urine (due to excess glucose in filtrate being passed into urine)
- unexplained weight loss
- feelings of fatique
1521
misinformation effect
memory errors : some information introduced and encoded after the target info is retrieved along with some portions of the target info
-> person has trouble identifying which retrieved info had been originally encoded and which was introduced later (source confusion)
1522
discriminatory/discriminative stimuli
allow organism to tell whether an appetitive or an aversive stimulus is forthcoming in an operant conditioning situation
- precede target response
- signal availability of reinforcement or punishment when individual performs target response
1523
signaling stimuli
neutral stimuli that may become conditioned stimuli
1524
interoreceptive awareness
increased sensitivity to internal bodily sensations, regulated by autonomic nervous system
1525
reticular activating system
midbrain:
- brainstem
- arousal
- sleep-awake cycle
- attention
1526
it is extremely difficult to _____ participants' physiological states and their sensitivity to changes in those states
experimentally manipulate
1527
study of sensory perception usually involves
- psychophysics paradigm (thresholds)
OR
- signal detection theory paradigm (signal-to-noise ratio and response criterion)
1528
increases in electrical conductivity of the skin is a physiological indication of
increased sympathetic arousal -> associated with anxiety
1529
after interacting with one another, a group of risk averse individuals will most likely become ___ risk averse
more
Group polarization is when people take on more extreme views of the VIEWS THEY ALREADY HAVE
1530
capacity of short-term memory store
7 +/- 2
1531
social support refers to
social network ties and relationships, NOT ACTIVITIES
1532
explicit memory
info retrieval as demonstrated by a direct memory task (free recall, serial recall, yes-no recognition, forced-choice recognition, etc)
1533
reactivity
participants in observational research changing their behavior when they know they are being observed
1534
interaction effect
effect of one independent variable depends on the level of another independent variable
1535
metacognition
ability to reflect on and process one's own mental and emotional processes
theory of mind is a type of metacognition that allows individuals to ascribe mental states to OTHERS (perspective-taking)
false belief: knowledge that other people can hold and act upon beliefs that the child knows to be untrue
1536
diathesis-stress model
disorders develop due to an interaction between predisposing risk factors (diatheses) and triggering events (stressors)
1537
stereotype threat
apprehension about confirming negative stereotypes related to a person's own group
- threatens performance
- worry about conforming to a negatively stereotyped role due to their social background
1538
protozoans are
eukaryotic
1539
microscopes
confocal: visualize small molecules using antibodies
light: visualize big molecules
scanning electron: identify structures that are at the surface of the cells
transmission electron: visualize small portions of the cell
1540
pseudogenes
one silent gene that originally duplicated from another gene
1541
ortholog genes
one gene encoding a similar protein with different functions in different species
1542
paralog genes
one gene encoding similar proteins with unrelated functions in the same species
1543
polymorphic genes
same gene that carries mutations responsible for the presence of more than one allele
- each allele must appear in at least 1% of the population
1544
spindle fiber formation
- occurs during prophase
- spindles form around each pair of centrioles
- if the spindle fiber elongation is inhibited, aster formation is the first process that is affected (asters anchor spindles to cell membrane)
1545
platelets derive from
megakaryocytes
1546
monocytes
- type of leukocyte (WBC)
- can differentiate into macrophages and monocyte-derived dendritic cells
1547
estrogen is a ___ so it is synthesized in the ___
lipid; smooth ER
1548
FSH and growth hormone are produced by
the anterior pituitary
1549
only gram-negative bacteria have
- double membrane
- thin cell wall (thick for gram-positive)
1550
trophoderm
gives rise to placenta
1551
the association of ___ with Cdk is required for mitosis to initiate
cyclin
1552
glycosides are formed when
a carbohydrate covalently binds via its anomeric carbon to another molecule through a hydroxyl
-> forms a glycosidic bond = acetal
1553
aldosterone is released in response to ___ plasma Na+ levels
low
1554
___ inhibitors form a covalent bond at the enzyme active site with the target molecules
irreversible
1555
within the first four weeks of fertilization
corpus luteum is maintained for progesterone production until placenta can start producing progesterone at around 12 weeks
1556
formic acid
H-CO-OH
1557
acetic acid
CH3CO2H
1558
lysozyme
hydrolyzes glycoside bonds
1559
proteins kinases can ___ enzymes
phosphorylate -> directly activating or deactivating them
1560
Vitamin B5 is a precursor to
Coenzyme A
1561
Vitamin B6 is a precursor to
PLP
1562
sp3 hybridized C-H protons (CH3 hydrogen atoms) have a chemical shift of
1.0-2.0 ppm
-> but if they're next to an electronegative atom, this moves the chemical shift downfield
ex: if O atom next to CH3, the chemical shift will be 3.0-4.0 ppm
1563
display rules
how cultural norms dictate how emotions are expressed
1564
racialization
social process of associating a racial/ethnic background with a certain social practice or relationship without the consent of the population of that racial background
labeling of racial/ethnic communities by the dominant cultural community in a society
1565
status inconsistency
imbalance between the prestige of a social status and the social power that status occupies
1566
standard deviations: 68-95-99.7 rule
One standard deviation: ~ 68% of data points are within one standard deviation of the mean
Two standard deviations: ~ 95% of data points are within two standard deviations of the mean
Three standard deviations: ~ 99.7% of data points are within three standard deviations of the mean
1567
culture lag
cultural and social norms take time to catch up to technological innovation, and social issues emerge in the application of these new technologies
1568
surveys are a ____ social research method, ethnographic studies are based on ___ observations
surveys -> statistical
ethnographic -> qualitative: in-person observations in a cultural setting over an extended period of time
1569
racial background is a socially constructed phenomenon that is erroneously identified with
genetic inheritance
1570
medicalization
recategorization of a condition previously considered normal as a medical problem that requires diagnosis and treatment by medical experts
1571
acetylcholine is associated with the ____ nervous system response
parasympathetic
1572
shaping
training an individual to perform novel and more complicated target behavior through first reinforcing simpler behaviors, through successive approximations
- operant-conditioning
process: simpler behavior acquired -> stop rewarding that behavior and only reward more complex version of behavior until individual acquires target behavior
1573
stimulus generalization
occurs when a stimulus-controlled behavior occurs in response to stimuli that physically resemble the original controlling stimulus (stimulus similar to CS elicits CR)
1574
stimulus discrimination
occurs when a stimulus-controlled behavior occurs in response specifically to the original controlling stimulus + it is NOT elicited by stimuli that resemble the original stimulus
1575
self-justification
process that reduces cognitive dissonance
1576
mere-exposure effect
preference for a familiar stimuli over novel stimuli
1577
state-dependency effect
when one's state (e.g. mood) at encoding matches one's state at retrieval => improved memory
1578
self-fulfilling prophecy
tendency to behave in ways that confirm expectations, whether those expectations are the individual's or others'
1579
positively and negatively charged amino acids interaction experience
electrostatic attraction = salt bridge
1580
dipole-dipole forces exist between __ amino acids
polar
1581
enzymes do not affect ____ properties of a reaction
thermodynamic (equilibrium, direction, etc)
-> only affects kinetic properties as they speed up the rate of reactions
1582
fructose is a
ketose
1583
number of proteins subunits is a ___ structure
quaternary
1584
What is the approximate osmotic pressure of the salt solution used for cell lysis?
use PV = nRT, but take into account that the salt solution splits (ex: KCl into K+ and Cl- so multiply result by 2)
1585
astrocytes are a type of ____ cells
glial
1586
pancreatic duct
transports digestive enzymes secreted by the pancreas to the duodenum
1587
how many segments of the primary structure of a transporter with intracellular N- and C-termini, and twelve membrane-spanning α-helices correspond to a cytoplasmic protein region?
Answer: 7
There is a cytoplasmic protein region after EVEYR OTHER transmembrane α-helix (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12). The final cytoplasmic region occurs after transmembrane α-helix 12 and is the C-terminus of the protein.
Considering the cytoplasmic regions that come after each α-helix, and the initial cytoplasmic region (N-terminus), there are a total of seven cytoplasmic regions in Glut5.
1588
if electron transport chain is inhibited and substrates following into this pathway is limited
conversion of pyruvate to lactate via lactate dehydrogenase allows the NADH coenzyme that is reduced in glycolysis to be regenerated to NAD+
=> The action of lactate dehydrogenase allows glycolysis to continue and yield ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation apart from the ETC and oxidative phosphorylation.
1589
transverse tubules
skeletal and cardiac muscles
1590
intercalated discs
cardiac-specific junctions that facilitate APs (only exist in cardiac tissue)
1591
desmosomes
adhesive intercellular junctions
1592
if a protein is resistant to protease cleavage, this is indicative of
accessibility
(not enzyme specificity because peptide-independent proteases cleave common peptide bonds within proteins)
1593
RT-PCR
1. reverse-transcriptase: prepare cDNA
2. DNA polymerase: amplify cDNA
1594
ATP synthase and cytochrome c reductase are both found on the mitochondrial ___ membrane
inner
1595
for R/S designation, must have
sp3 hybridized carbon atoms with four unique substituents (stereogenic carbons)
1596
high percent enantiomeric excess indicates
high stereoselectivity as high % ee indicates a strong preference for one enantiomer over the other
1597
circular dichroism
study secondary structure
spectroscopy signal arises from the chirality of the alpha carbon -> all amino acid residues (except Gly) has a chiral alpha carbon
1598
mass spectrometry
study primary structure of protein fragments and measure protein's molar mass
1599
x-ray crystallography
- high-resolution protein structure to determine specific noncovalent interactions between the ligand and the receptor
1600
a concentration cell only requires
a difference in ion concentrations to create a voltage difference
1601
antibiotic resistance ___ zone of inhibition
decreases
1602
siRNAs
short dsRNA that decrease translation of target proteins
1603
optic disk
"blind spot" - where retinal axons project to the optic nerve, lacks photoreceptors
1604
temporal cortex
perception of auditory info
1605
dissociative amnesia
cannot recall important autobiographical info, usually related to trauma or stressor
1606
conversion disorder
impairments to voluntary motor or sensory function - not due to a recognized neurological or medical condition
1607
poverty
absolute = individuals cannot meet basic needs
relative = social disadvantage by income or wealth compared to social advantages linked to income or wealth in a society
marginal = unstable employment
structural = lack of economic opportunities for individuals to leave poverty
1608
modeling vs schema
modeling - adoption of others' behavior through observational learning
schema - organized clusters of knowledge - e.g. implicit association of knowledge such that speed in which memory schemas are activated and processed can indicate implicit attitude
- mental "blueprint"
1609
withdrawal
occurs when a person stops using or reduces dose of a substance
1610
craving
strong desire to ingest a substance
1611
risk of dependence from high to low
high risk: stimulants (increase CNS activity, eg. cocaine), alcohol, sedatives (depress activity of CNS)
low risk: hallucinogens (psychoactive, lead to psychedelic effects)
1612
Freud stages of development
early childhood is most important in personality development
0-1: oral - mouth -> trust, comfort
1-3: anal - anus -> control, independence
3-6: phallic - genital, Oedipus complex (resolved through identification), Electra complex
7-11: latency - none, social skills (no focus on libido), no fixation, exploration
12+: genital - genital, sexual maturity, mentally healthy, sexual interests -> needs of others
1613
misinformation
when an individual's recall for episodic memories is altered by introducing misleading post-event information
1614
people with ___ intelligence can delay gratification in pursuit of long-term rewards
emotional
1615
acquisition
- conditioning
- neutral (future conditioned) stimulus is paired with unconditioned stimulus until neutral stimulus elicits a conditioned response
1616
correlational study
investigate naturally occurring relationship between variables WITHOUT experimental manipulation
1617
randomized study
typically used to measure effectiveness of a NEW TREATMENT or INTERVENTION
1618
horizontal mobility
individual changes some aspect of SES (e.g. employed vs unemployed) but maintains some relative status (e.g. still has income through insurance)
1619
carbon double bond is
sp2
1620
absorption of UV light by organic molecules always results in the
excitation of bound electrons (n, sigma, pi) that enter an excited state (sigma* or pi*)
1621
polarity
carboxylic acid
alcohol
ketone
alkane
1622
object is in equilibrium when the center of mass is
directly above their feet
1623
In designing the experiment, the researchers used which type of 32P labeled ATP?
Answer: gamma 32P-ATP
the gamma phosphate is what kinases attach to proteins, that's the one which the researchers would want to label
1624
What causes duplex DNA with a certain (A + T):(G + C) ratio to melt at a higher temperature than comparable length duplex DNA with a greater (A + T):(G + C) ratio?
increased pi-stacking strength
duplex DNA with a lower (A + T):(G + C) ratio melts at a higher temperature than comparable length duplex DNA with a greater (A + T):(G + C) ratio because GC base pairs create stronger pi-stacking interactions in the duplex than AT base pairs
1625
boiling point and vapor pressure are ___ correlated
inversely
1626
storage lipids
triacylglycerol (three fatty acids ester-linked to a single glycerol)
1627
log(0.1)
-1
1628
when a glass rod is rubbed with a silk scarf, ___ are removed from the rod
electrons
1629
avg bond energy is ____ to bond strength and shorter bonds are stronger
proportional
1630
Hess' s Law
delta H of reaction = (sum of delta H products) - (sum of delta H reactants)
1631
Which of the following energy conversions best describes what takes place in a battery-powered resistive circuit when the current is flowing?
Chemical to electric to thermal
chemical energy used as electrical energy to set the charge carriers in motion through resistor -> experience drag from crystal lattice of resistive conductor and dissipate energy as heat from resistor
1632
gastrointestinal epithelial cells are ___ proliferative in adults
highly
1633
protein secondary structure is characterized by hydrogen bonds between
backbone amide protons and carbonyl oxygens
1634
phagosomes can fused with
lysosomes -> contain hydrolytic enzymes
1635
PFK is regulated by
allosteric regulation and feedback inhibition by final product of glycolysis, ATP
NO competitive inhibition
1636
secretory proteins are synthesized on the
rough ER
1637
ubiquitination
marks proteins for degradation by a proteasome
1638
____ residues can form covalent bonds by disulfide bond formation
cysteine - thiol group
(although Met contains sulfur, it does not carry thiol group needed for disulfide bond formation)
1639
post-translational modifications (e.g. histone acetylation) can be detected using
Western blots
1640
Vasopressin regulates the insertion of aquaporins into the apical membranes of the epithelial cells of which renal structure?
collecting duct
-> vasopressin is released during dehydration
-> increase expression of aquaporins
1641
Under ANAEROBIC conditions, how many net molecules of ATP are produced by the consumption of 5 moles of glucose?
6 x 10^24 molecules
Under anaerobic conditions, only 2 NET MOLES of ATP are generated from each mole of glucose
=> After consumption of 5 moles of glucose, 10 net moles of ATP are generated
=? Since each mole contains about 6 × 10^23 molecules, it follows that under anaerobic conditions, consumption of 5 moles of glucose yields 6 × 10^23 x 10 = 6 x 10^24
1642
actin is a protein that forms cytoskeletal ___
microfilaments
1643
centrosomes
primary microtubules organizing center (produce and radiate)
kinetochores are positioned at the centromere of a chromosome and can attach microtubules, but does not produce them
1644
sperm cells form within testes -> once they leave the testes, they are stored in the ____, where they will become motile
epididymis
1645
____ is needed to allow myosin heads to detach from actin filament
ATP
1646
phosphoethanolamine
glycerophospholipids with negatively charged head groups like phosphoserine and phosphoinositol
1647
nonreducing sugar
no reducing end = no free anomeric carbon
e.g. sucrose
1648
all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are enclosed by a
phospholipid bilayer
1649
protozoa and fungi are
eukaryotes
1650
peroxisome
small organelles specialized to facilitate certain redox reactions involving peroxides and metabolism of specific lipids + detox harmful substances
1651
in eukaryotes, DNA replication and transcription take place in the ____ whereas translation occurs in the ____
nucleus; cytoplasm
nuclear pores facilitate the passage of mRNA out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm
1652
Bohr effect
during exercise, lactate and NAD+ are produced -> lactate can be transported to the liver to undergo gluconeogenesis
-> protons produced during muscle contractions are cotransported with the lactate and cause acidification of the blood
-> accumulate H+ ions can bind to hemoglobin and reduce its affinity for O2
1653
parental somatic mutations (occur in non-sex cell lineages during an organism's lifetime) have a ____ probability of being inherited by offspring
0%
1654
ribosomes read mRNA in
5' to 3' direction
1655
during an inflammatory response, blood vessels
dilate and become more permeable
-> increase blood flow to bring more immune cells to affected area
1656
genetic linkage
tendency of alleles in close proximity to remain on the same chromosome and be inherited together by offspring (b/c fewer crossover events)
=> greater # of haploid gametes with nonrecombinant genotypes
1657
Ductus deferens
transfers mature sperm to the urethra
1658
prostate
produces prostatic fluid containing enzymes to prevent coagulation of sperm in the vagina
1659
erythrocytes
- contain hemoglobin
- expel nucleus and other organelles during synthesis (erythropoiesis) in bone marrow to maximize space available for hemoglobin
- produce energy needed via anaerobic glycolysis
1660
autosomal inheritance
inheritance of genes encoded by one of the nonsex NUCLEAR chromosomes
1661
tissue regeneration
regrowth of the SAME functional tissue or organs previously present after loss due to injury
e.g. producing new cartilage cells in punctured rabbit ear
SCAR tissue is NOT regeneration because it is a different type of tissue than what was present before the injury (epithelial tissue)
1662
bile is secreted from
the liver into the bile duct, from which it is released into the duodenum of the small intestine
1663
a liquid at the exact temperature of its boiling point is transitioning from liquid to a gas and it must
gain an amount of heat equal to its heat of vaporization before all the liquid turns to gas and the temperature increases
1664
GHRH (endogenous stimulator of GH secretion) is released from the
hypothalamus
1665
glucocorticoid deficiency ileads to wide-ranging effects because
receptors for glucocorticoid hormones are expressed in nearly all cell types in the body (endocrine signaling = long distance)
1666
compared to fasting state, after glucose ingestion a healthy individual will have ___ insulin degradation rate
increased
=> increased insulin binding to receptors on target cell plasma membranes
=> internalization (uptake) and degradation of insulin
1667
renin-angiotensin system, aldosterone and ADH ___ BP
increase (promote Na+ and H2O reabsorption, vasoconstriction, increases blood volume and BP)
1668
no sarcomere in
non-striated muscle (smooth)
1669
if a spring is extended (stretched), elastic force is oriented
toward the equilibrium point to oppose the extension and restore the stretched spring back to its shorter natural position
1670
when a subject moves toward the laser Doppler sensor, the laser light reflected back to the sensor will be
higher in frequency than the light transmitted by the sensor
velocity of light is constant
1671
methadone
activates opiate receptors but acts more slowly so dampens the high - treat opiate-induced disorders
1672
divided vs selective attention
divided attention = doing multiple things at once (multitasking)
selective attention = focusing on a single task while actively ignoring distractions or irrelevant information - reacting to certain stimuli selectively as they occur simultaneously
1673
inattentional blindness
we are not aware of things that are in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field
1674
priming
one exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus, even if we haven't been paying attention it it
e.g. primed to respond to our name - cocktail party effect
1675
dual coding hypothesis
easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone
-> method of loci: memory palace
1676
encoding strategies
- rote rehearsal: repeat same thing over again (least effective)
- chunking: group info into meaningful categories we alreadretreival cuesy know
- mnemonic devices: method of loci, pegword system (verbal anchors), acronym, imagery
- self-referencing: relating new info to you personally
- spacing: spreading out studying to shorter periods
1677
retrieval cues
- priming: prior activation of nodes/associations
- context
- state
- free recall -> primacy and recency effects (serial position effect)
- cued recall
- recognition
1678
Korsakoff's syndrome
caused by:
- lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine (which converts carbohydrates to glucose for energy)
- malnutrition, eating disorders, alcoholism
poor balance, abnormal eye movements, confusion, memory loss, confabulation (making up stories to fill in memories)
Wernicke's encephalopathy - precursor to KS
1679
statistical errors
type 1 = false positive
type 2 = false negative
1680
intelligence
Spearman's theory: one general intelligence (g factor)
theory 2 of 3 intelligences: analytical (academic), creative (generate novel ideas and adapt), and practical (solve ill-defined problems) intelligences
- IQ = analytical only
emotional intelligence = perceive, understand and manage emotions in interactions with others
fluid intelligence = ability to reason quickly and abstractly (with new info) - decrease as we age
crystallized intelligence = accumulated knowledge and verbal skills - improve or stays same as we age
1681
language theories
behaviorist - language is a conditioned behavior (Skinner - learning theory)
nativist - language is innate (Chomsky) -> language acquisition device LAD and critical period
materialist - what happens in the BRAIN when people think, speak, write
interactionist - interplay between environmental and innate factors (Vygotsky)
universalism - thought determines language completely
Piaget - once children were able to think a certain way, and then developed language to describe those thoughts
Vygotsky - language and though are independent, but converge through development and eventually learn to use simultaneously
Sapir-Whorfian: linguistic relativism and determinism
1682
positive emotions
left hemisphere
1683
negative emotions
right hemisphere
1684
appraisal theory of stress
stress arises from our cognitive interpretations of events
primary appraisal - evaluating for presence of potential threat: irrelevant, benign, stressful
if stressful primary appraisal: secondary appraisal - assessing capability to cope with the threat or to deal with stressor
1685
4 major categories of stressors
1. significant life change - major, affects individual
2. daily hassles - minor, affects individual
3. catastrophic events - major, affects everyone
4. ambient stressors (noise, crowd) - minor, affects everyone
1686
lower motor neuron signs (efferent neurons of PNS) - control skeletal muscle so abnormalities lead to weakness
atrophy of skeletal muscle, hypotonia, fasciculations, hyporeflexia
1686
behavioral effects of stress
hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and amygdala
- learned helplessness, easily angered, depression, anxiety, addiction
coping: perceived control, optimism, social support
management: exercise, meditation, religious beliefs/faith, cognitive flexibility
1687
upper motor neuron sign
UMNs control LMNs, found in cerebral cortex, synapse on LMNs in brainstem or spinal cord
- UMNs start in cerebral cortex -> axon travels down through brainstem -> meet spinal cord and travel down other side until they reach LMNs
hyperreflexia (hypersensitive), clonus (rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle), hypertonia, extensor plantar response
1688
cerebral cortex
frontal lobe: motor, prefrontal (executive), Broca's area
parietal: somatosensory cortex, spatial manipulation
occipital: vision
temporal: sound, Wernicke's area
1689
somatosensation
- position + vibration + touch mechanoreceptors -> larger axons, myelinated - delivered faster
- pain -> nociceptors
- temperature -> thermoreceptors
1690
long tracts
collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem
- UMNs
- somatosensory (afferent)
1691
subcortical cerebrum
deep part of cerebrum
- internal capsule: corticospinal tract
- corpus collosum: connect two hemispheres
- basal ganglia: motor functions, cognition, emotion, no UMNs
- thalamus: sensory relay
- hypothalamus: control pituitary gland
1692
neurotransmitters
glutamate - excitatory, RAS
GABA (brain) - inhibitory
glycine (spinal cord) - inhibitory
acetylcholine - released to cerebral cortex by Basilis and septal nuclei in frontal lobe, released for LMNs and ANS
histamine - sent by hypothalamus
norepinephrine - released by locus ceruleus, also ANS
serotonin - released by raphe nuclei in midbrain/medulla
dopamine - VTA and substantia nigra
1692
monozygotic vs dizygotic
monozygotic - identical, share 100% of genes
dizygotic - fraternal, share 50% of genes like regular siblings
1693
epigenetics
changes to gene expression other than to gene
ex: addition of methyl groups to gene -> more difficult for TFs to activate gene
1694
theories of motivation
1. evolutionary - instincts
2. drive reduction theory - drive to reduce the need, motivation is to fulfill the drive
3. optimal arousal theory
4. cognitive - thought processes drive behavior
5. Maslow's hierarchy of needs - satisfy needs in particular order
1695
psychoanalytic theory
personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and past memories (especially childhood)
2 instinctual drives:
- libido: motivation for survival, growth, pleasure
- death instinct: drives aggressive behaviors fueled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/others
projection, reaction formation, regression, sublimation
when energy is stuck at various stages of psychosexual development, conflicts can occur
fixation at particular stage predicts adult personality
1. id - unconscious, develops at birth, immediate gratification
2. ego - part unconscious and conscious, long-term gratification: balance conflicting demands of the id and the superego - anxiety occurs when demands are not met - RESOLVE SUBCONSCIOUS CONFLICT
3. superego - unconscious and conscious, moral conscience, develops around 4: internalization of parental and social expectations and values, demands one to perform to their highest possible standard
1695
foot in the door phenomenon
tendency to agree to small actions first and eventually comply with much larger actions
1695
role playing
everyone plays roles in life - over time, what feels like acting starts to feel like you
- changed attitude as a result of our behavior and carrying out that role
- Zimbardo's prison experiment
1696
Allport traits
cardinal - dominant
central - less dominant than cardinal
secondary - preferences, attitudes
1697
Eysenck
extroversion is based on differences in reticular formation
neuroticism: emotional stability
psychoticism: degree to which reality is distorted
1698
5 factor model
OCEAN
Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism
- Openness: curiosity, imagination, unconventional attitudes
- Conscientiousness: organization, punctuality, dependability, self-discipline, planning
- Extraversion: sociability, outgoingness, warmth, assertiveness, energy
- Agreeableness: empathy, helpfulness, trustworthiness
- Neuroticism: emotional INSTABILITY, anxiety, hostility, anger, depression, self-consciousness, impulsivity, vulnerability
1698
cattell
16 personalities
1699
learning-performance distinction
learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things
-> not performing it doesn't mean you didn't learn it!
1700
schizophrenia brain
- decreased size of cerebral cortex
- abnormalities in dopamine? (increase)
cognitive symptoms: mesocoricolimbic pathway
negative symptoms (blunted emotions): limbic structure
positive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions): temporal cortex
1701
depression brain
- decreased activity in frontal lobe
- increased activity in limbic lobe
- decreased amount of monoamines
abnormal pathways:
- raphe nuclei - serotonin release
- locus coereleus - NE release
- VTA - dopamine suppy
can be treated with monoamine oxidase inhibitors (increase amount of monoamines in synapse)
1702
social influence
normative - do something to gain respect/support of peers
informational - conform because we feel others are more knowledgeable than us
1702
just world phenomenon
belief that good things happen to good people and evil acts are always punished
- "you got what you deserve"
rational techniques: accept reality and prevent/correct injustice
irrational techniques: denial and reinterpreting events
1703
internalization
incorporated roles into beliefs, ideas/behaviors/beliefs integrated into our own values - influence attitudes and behaviors
1704
factors to conformity
- group size: more likely in groups of 3-5
- unanimity: when opinions of group are unanimous
- group status
- group cohesion: more likely if feel connection with group
- observed behavior: whether we believe our behavior is observed
- public response: acceptance vs. shunning
- internal factors: prior commitments or feelings of insecurity
1705
labeling theory
behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and LABELLED it as deviant - deviant behaviors in the past have long-term stigmatizing impacts on individuals
primary deviance - no big consequences, mild reaction to deviant behavior, individual behaviors in same way without feeling wrong
secondary deviance - more serious consequences, severe negative reaction that results in stigmatizing behavior
1706
collective behavior
open membership, loose norms, deindividualization
- fad: become very popular quickly, but lose popularity just as quickly
- mass hysteria: large # of people experience delusions at same time - rumors and fears
- riots: large # of people who engage in dangerous behavior
1707
ego depletion
idea that self-control (ability to control impulses and delay gratification) is a limited resource -> if you use a lot of it it can get used up, and less to use in future
- those who resisted eating cookies ended up giving up sooner on another unrelated task that also requires self-control
1708
self-concept
existential self: sense of being separate and distinct from others
categorical self: even though we're separate, we also exist in the world with others
Carl Rogers - Humanistic theory
- self-image: what we believe we are
- self-esteem: value we place on ourselves
- ideal-self: what we aspire to be
incongruity when ideal self and real self do NOT match
1709
social identity theory
- all human categorize themselves and others without realizing it
- identification - sense of belonging and behaving like the category we belong to
- social comparison - compare ourselves with other groups to maintain self-esteem
1710
self-efficacy
belief in own ability to succeed in a particular situation
factors:
- mastery of experience
- social modeling
- social persuasion
- psychological responses: minimize stress and control mood
1711
Vygotsky
role social interaction plays in development of cognition
- social interactions between growing children with those around them in development of higher order learning
babies elementary mental function (MAPS): memory, attention, perception, sensation
=> developed into higher mental processes from skillful tutor like parents, teachert
- cooperative and collaborative dialogue from more knowledgeable other
- zone of proximal development: zone of can do and can't do
- language
1712
Harlow Monkey experiments
comfort > food
cloth mother acts as secure base
1713
ideal bureaucracy
Max Weber
- division of labor: increased efficiency but increased alienation, trained incapacity
- hierarchy: clarify who's in command, deprive people of voice in decision making, shirk responsibility, hide mistakes
- written rules and regulations: clear expectations, equal treatment, uniform performance, stiffen creativity, discourage initiative, goal displacement (rules more important)
- impersonality: equal treatment, alienation, discourage loyalty
- employment based on technical qualifications: decrease discrimination, decrease ambition
H.I.R.E.D.
1714
feminist theory
- macro level: women's role in education, family and workforce - look beyond common male-based perspective
- originating from conflict theory
- gender differences
- gender inequality
- gender oppression
- structural oppression: patriarchy, racism, capitalism
1715
age stratification theory
age is a way of regulating behavior of a generation
- activity theory: how older generation looks at themselves, certain activities or jobs lost, social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged
- disengagement theory: older adults and society separate
- continuity theory: people try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives
1716
suburbanization
movement away from cities - commute for work can be long
suburbs can form own economic centers
exurbs: beyond suburb, prosperous areas outside the city where people live and commute to the city to work, like suburbs
1716
globalization theories
modernization theory: all countries follow similar path of development to modern society
dependency theory: periphery countries export resources to core countries and don't have means to develop
hyperglobalist perspective: countries become interdependent and nation states themselves are less important
skeptical perspective: regionalized instead of globalized - third world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits
transformationalist perspective: national governments are changing - no specific cause or outcome
1717
culture
- all people share culture with others in their society, provides rules and expectations for carrying out daily rituals and interactions
- adaptive (evolve over time)
- builds on itself
- transmitted
subculture = meso-level sub-communty
microculture = only affect limited period of one's life
counterculture = values differ greatly from larger society, often tension with dominant group
1717
social movement theories
mass society theory - skepticism about groups, only form for people seeking refuge from main society
relative deprivation theory - actions of groups oppressed/deprived of rights in society that others enjoy. Need: relative deprivation, feeling deserving better, and belief that conventional methods are useless
- relative deprivation: when expectations surpass the material resources that a group or individual has
resource mobilization theory: factors that help/hinder a social movement like access to resources (e.g. media, political influence, money to recruit members)
rational choice theory - people compare pros and cons of different courses of actions and choose the one they think is best for themselves
1718
" ____" magnet
drag those people away from core part of society into periphery society - social exclusion (ill-health, poverty, discrimination, etc)
1719
a means of production
way we produce goods (factories, farms, etc): owned by fairly wealthy individuals that hire a large # of workers who offer their labor without owning any of the means of production => class divide
Marx - workers in working class don't realize they're being exploited and oppressed by this capitalistic model of working
Class consciousness: workers develop class consciousness and realize they have solidarity with one another and struggle to overcome this oppression/exploitation
False consciousness: workers are unable to see their oppression + owners promote false consciousness by controlling classes
1719
index of dissimilarity
0 = perfect distribution
100 = total segregation
1720
imprinted gene
expression of an allele depends on the parent that transmits it
methylation at imprinting control regions affects gene expression
imprinted allele = silenced
ex:
- paternally imprinted -> paternal allele methylated and not transcribed
1721
repressed memory
usually of traumatic event and retrieved through therapy
e.g. Freud
1721
centration
tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects
1722
reproductive memory
information retrieved from long-term memory may not be fully accurate
1723
prospective memory
memory for tasks which must be completed in the future
1724
reconstructive nature of memory
false memories (intrusions of false information into episodic memories of events) that are consistent with the accurate information suggests that episodic memory for first learning about the event is being combined with semantic memory about information learned later
1725
somatic symptom disorder
psychological distress caused by the experience of physical symptoms
1726
medulla oblongata
regulation of basic life functions like respiration, heart rate
1727
pons
sleep regulation
1728
dichotic listening task
presenting different auditory stimuli to each ear simultaneously
1728
secondary groups
formed to achieve formal goals
ex: co-workers, team members
1729
period effects
impact of certain periods on ALL cohorts
1730
NMDA receptors
glutamate-responsive ion channels that promote AP formation upon activation
=> increased expression of NMDA receptors in the hippocampus will increase the likelihood of AP formation => increase excitability
1730
structural mobility
changes in socioeconomic status of the whole population
1731
self-verification
tendency to seek out and agree with information that is consistent with one's self-concept
1732
neurotransmitter most closely associated with aggressive behavior
aggression = mood = serotonin
1733
neuroticism
associated with high rates of negative emotionality
1734
conscientiousness
diligence, organization, self-regulation
1735
drive
motivational state caused by psychological or physiological needs = disruptions to homeostasis
1736
incentive theories focus on the role of ____ in shaping behavior
extrinsic motivators
1737
self-determination theory
innate need for psychological growth
1738
sensory interaction
idea that one sensory modality may influence another (e.g. vision influencing balance)
1739
vestibular sense
required for balance (but does not explain sensory interaction and why keeping eyes open would help maintain balance)
1740
perceptual maladaptation
occurs when perceptual systems are not functioning optimally
1741
in a thermodynamic mixture, ____ is directly linked to the respective stabilities
proportion of product moles (percent yields)
1742
boiling points vs thermodynamic stability measure
boiling points indicate relative intermolecular forces, energy required to overcome intermolecular forces
thermodynamic stability measures the energy to break bonds within a molecule - e.g. heats of combustion
1743
UV-Visible absorption spectra can be used to determine
presence of functional groups in organic compounds
1744
if Kb > Ka for an ion, it is a
base
1745
activation energy of forward reaction
activated complex minus the energy of the reactants
energy is required to reach activated complex
1746
adding ____ will not change the relative concentrations of the acid or the conjugate base
water
1747
chelate formation
ligand binding to a central atom with more than one donor atoms
1748
when peptide bond is formed (condensation), ___ is lost as a byproduct
water
1749
Michaelis-Menten assumptions
- initial velocity is measured under steady state conditions
- solution pH remains constant at all [S]
- [E] < [S] otherwise Vmax cannot be obtained
once reaction reaches equilibrium, measurement of the initial rate V0 will be impossible (and Michaelis-Menten data is a plot of V0 vs. [S])
1750
acetyl group
-COCH3
1751
atoms that are likely to coordinate a central ion (e.g. calcium) are
- partially or fully negatively charged
- Lewis base so has lone pairs to donate
1752
heme contains
a porphyrin ring, which is composed of four pyrroles (5-membered rings containing one N atom - like Histidine)
1753
resistivity is the inverse of
conductivity
1754
polysaccharides are
hydrophilic because they have numerous hydroxyl groups
1755
frequency is characteristic of the
wave source, NOT the medium surrounding the source so frequency does not change depending on the medium through which the wave propagates
1756
proteins encoded by the same operon
share the same promoter and same mRNA fragment
"produced from a single mRNA transcribed from a single promoter sequence within the operon"
1757
ketone bodies are generated from
sustained oxidation of fatty acids
1757
Na+ K+ ATPase is ____ transport
primary active by using ATP to move solutes against their concentration gradients
(secondary active transport = cell uses energy of a molecule moving down its conc. gradient to power the movement of a separate molecule against their conc. gradient)
1758
osmotic pressure is ____ proportional to solute concentration
directly
1759
loading control
assess total protein levels in various samples
1760
RNA viruses require ____ to replicate themselves
reverse transcriptase
- only viruses have RNA as genetic material - microorganisms contain DNA as their genetic material
- viruses can use host cell polymerases but do not need to alter them
1761
____ is the portion of the nephron that will filter circulating proteins
glomerulus
=> small structures called fenestrae allow molecules smaller than the protein albumin to pass into the filtrate while proteins and other larger molecules are retained in the blood
1762
mucous secretions are produced by ___ tissue
epithelial cells = specialized in secretions
goblet cells: specialized epithelial cells that produce mucus in the respiratory tract
pneumocytes II: another type of specialized epithelial cells that produce surfactant in the lungs
1763
____ propel food along the intestine
smooth muscles
1764
reduced circulatory protein levels (amounts of plasma proteins in the blood) will results in ___ blood osmotic pressure
decreased
=> lower than fluid located in body tissues
=> more fluid leaving the blood to compensate for the higher levels of solute in the tissue fluid
SUMMARY: blood exerts hydrostatic pressure against blood vessels, which tries to push fluid OUT of your circulatory system and INTO the tissues. However, solutes such as proteins (albumin) in the blood exert oncotic pressure that pulls water INTO the circulatory system and OUT of the tissues. So we could look at net filtration into the tissues as a balance between (Hydrostatic Pressure) - (Oncotic/Osmotic pressure). By decreasing albumin in the blood, we decrease that oncotic pressure so more fluid tends to leave the circulatory system and move into the tissues.
1765
increase in level of fatty acids in the intestines will result in ____ osmotic pressure in the intestines
increased
=> prevent water absorption
=> diarrhea
1766
urea induces ___ of proteins
unfolding and denaturation by exposing hydrophobic groups and interfering with hydrogen bonding in the amino group backbone
1767
ionic strength is a measure of ion concentrations in a solution, so it does ___ alter protonation state of amino acid side chains
NOT
1768
at high pH, proton concentration is ___ and ionizable amino acids tend to ___ protons to the environment
low; lose (ie. become deprotonated)
1768
a G protein is commonly switched ___ as it hydrolyzes GTP into GDP
off
1769
if Ln(K) = negative, K is
between 0 and 1 (ie. when delta G is positive for non-spontaneous reactions, Keq is less than 1)
1770
disulfide bond formation is an ___ reaction
oxidation (SH of cysteine become S-S when joined together)
1770
most protein-protein interactions are
noncovalent
antibodies generally bind their epitopes through noncovalent interactions such as hydrogen bonds and electrostatic attractions
1771
antibody binds amino acids that are ___ to each other in the folded protein
close
in the unfolded protein, residues are too far apart for the antibody to bind
but if epitopes consist of amino acid residues that are adjacent to each other in the primary structure, they can be bound by an antibody regardless of whether the protein is properly folded
1772
positively charged side chains have a greater tendency to ___ pI
increase
1773
cathode is the ____ electrode
negative
1774
electrostatic interactions combine elements of both hydrogen bonding and ionic bonding
in proteins, it most commonly occurs between the anionic carboxylate of aspartic or glutamic acids and the cationic amino group of lysine or the guanidinium group of arginine
1775
all amino acids except for Leu and Lys are glucogenic
can be converted into glucose through gluconeogenesis
1776
amino acids that are both ketogenic and glucogenic
Phe, Ile, Tyr, Trp, Thr
1777
alpha-keto acid derivative of aspartate
oxaloacetate
1778
in most tissues (including muscle but excluding small intestine and liver), feedback inhibition of ___ limits ATP use for phosphorylation
hexokinase
small intestine and liver use fructokinase instead - no feedback inhibition
1779
minimum and magnitude of resultant vector of A + B with angles 0 to 180 degrees
If |A|>|B|:
min = A - B
max = A + B
1780
all molecules exhibit __ forces
London dispersion
1781
amine
nitrogen atom bonded to three noncarbonyl carbon atoms (R3N where R = H or a carbon group that is NOT C=O and no more than two out of three R groups can be H)
1782
imine
R2C=NR
1783
carbamate
RO(C=O)NRR
1784
amide
R(C=O)NRR
1785
lactonization
intramolecular transesterification yielding cyclic ester (= lactone) between alcohol and carboxylic acid
1786
if an inhibitor does not bind to the active site and can bind to the enzyme both before and after the substrate has bound + the compounds do not exclude substrate binding, it is most likely a ___ inhibition
mixed
1787
ping-pong mechanism
- no ternary complex formed
- first product is released after the first substrate is bound before the second substrate can bind and form the second product:
1. a product is seen before the second substrate is bound
2. binding of the first substrate causes the enzyme to change into an intermediate form that will bind the second substrate.
1788
free electrons in the conductor arrange themselves on the surface so that the electric field they produce inside the conductor exactly cancels any
external electric field
1789
when threshold is met at the ____, voltage-gated sodium channels open, generating an ____
axon hillock; action potential
graded potentials occur in the cell body and dendrites, not the axon
1790
monoxygenase
oxygen atom is inserted into a substrate -> results in oxidation of the substrate
1790
defining characteristic of a transcription factor
contains a DNA-binding domain that allows it to bind to regulatory nucleic acid sequences in a gene to alter transcription
1791
when determining the composition of the mRNA that encodes a protein (nucleotides)
count the stop codon (3 nucleotides) + see if it is cleaved from a longer peptide chain
1792
two aspects to consider when choosing an antigen for vaccine production
immunogenicity and toxicity
=> if subunit has toxic activity, not suitable for vaccine production
1793
aminoacyl transferase tRNA transfer order
transfer tRNA originally bound at A site -> P site -> E site
1794
inactive X chromosome
- replicates
- more condensed compared to active X chromosome
- one of the last chromosomes to replicate
1795
bile release
smooth muscles around gallbladder contract and hepatopancreatic sphincter relaxes
1796
peptidases digest
proteins
carbohydrates - carbohydrases
nucleotides - nucleases
fats - lipases
1797
high osmolarity of urine suggests
increase in water conservation in kidneys, high levels of proteins, secreting lots of Na+
=> lower blood osmolarity and higher urine osmolarity
1798
during exercise, increased lactate concentration in plasma (circulation) will increase
osmolarity of venous blood
1799
intercellular connections
- desmosomes: anchors to form strong sheets of cells
- gap junctions: provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells
- tight junctions: prevent movement of solutes within the space - eg. blood-brain barrier
- intercalated discs: specialized, between cardiac muscle cells, provide direct electrical coupling among cells
1800
endosomes
transport substance from the outside of a cell
1801
traditional behaviorist approach
only actual outcomes of a behavior determine whether that behavior will be repeated
- will reject that cognitions can acts as motivators for behavior
1802
extrinsic vs external motivation
extrinsic motivation: any motivation that results from incentives to perform a behavior that are not inherent to the behavior itself
-> broader term that includes external motivation
external motivation: social pressure (punishers and reinforcers)
1802
base rate fallacy
error people make when they ignore the base rates (prior probabilities) when evaluating the probabilities of events
1803
retina function
contains photoreceptors that detect light rays and transduce light to energy => energy becomes an action potential that travels through the optic nerve and to the primary visual cortex
1804
glass escalator
men who pursue occupations that have high proportions of women will quickly ascend the career ladder
1805
functional fixedness
tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions, which can inhibit problem-solving
1806
maladaptiveness
whether the behavior negatively impacts the person's life or poses a threat to others
1807
overextension
applying a term for one class of objects to other objects that bear only a superficial resemblance ("doggie" for a cow, or "butterfly" for a moth or hair bow)
1808
bootstrapping
initial stage(s) of grammatical development
1809
elaborative encoding
combining new information with existing memory representations, which enhances the probability of retrieving that new information
1809
binocular depth cue
- retinal disparity
ex. using distance from the object of focus as depth cue
- convergence
1810
1810
disinhibition
- risk-taking
- inability to withhold appropriate or unwanted behavior
1811
assimilation concept on immigrant health
immigrant group will eventually adopt the customs of the majority group in society so their health outcomes would be likely to approximate the majority group's health outcomes
1812
NTP cleavage
typically releases either the gamma-phosphate as Pi or the gamma- and beta-phosphates as pyrophosphate so the new bond is with the alpha-phosphate from UTP
1813
secondary amine
nitrogen atoms bound to two carbon atoms
1814
mass spectrum only detects
charged particles (cations)
1815
during exercise, ____ has higher O2 affinity than hemoglobin
myoglobin
myoglobin = hyperbolic
hemoglobin = sigmoidal = cooperativity => low affinity for O2 at low [O2], but affinity increases as pO2 increases
conformational shift between oxy (R conformation) and deoxy (T conformation) states explains hemoglobin's cooperative behavior
1816
glycosidases
remove various monosaccharide residues
1817
glycosyltransferases
add new monosaccharide residues
1818
two-electron reduction of a ketone to an alcohol is catalyzed by
Na+-NQR
1819
even if the individual bonds are polar, if the sum of the dipole moments cancel out, the molecule is
nonpolar
1820
energy of the absorbed radiation must be ___ than the energy of the fluorescence radiation
larger
1821
how to tell if a protein is still in its native state
compare functioning to the levels observed for protein believed to be in the native state - compare binding affinity
1822
proton is more acidic if it is near an electronegative atom
because the conjugate base (anion) will be stabilized by an inductive effect which dissipates negative charge building up
1823
adding an enzyme does ____ affect the total (final) yield of the product
NOT
only affects rate of formation
1824
linkage of nucleotides within a nuclei acid backbone
phosphodiester bonds - nucleotides within a backbone
hydrogen bonds - hold base-pairing nucleotides together
1825
"cotransporter"
"exchanger"
"cotransporter" = symport
"exchanger" = antiport
1825
glucose isomers
e.g. fructose, galactose
1826
glucosylation
crucial process for the structural conformation of the protein
1827
ionophores
bind to ions and facilitate their movements across membranes
1828
enhancer
DNA region that is able to bind transcriptional activators in order to increase the expression of a particular gene
1829
enterocytes
- duodenal villi
- produce enzymes that digest disaccharides
1829
parietal lobe
integration of sensory information
1830
perceptual constancy
tendency to experience a stable perception even as the sensory input itself is changing
1831
acetylcholinesterase ___ acetycholine
breaks down
=> decreases activity of acetylcholine within the synapse
1832
demand characteristics
occur if research design provides cues to the participants regarding the study hypothesis and causes them to respond in a specific manner
1833
definitions, thinking
hypothesis: expected relationship between two or more variables
conceptualization: researcher describes the social dynamics related to a concept
thematic definition: larger area of research for a study
operationalization: how an abstract concept as a variable is observed through different measurements
1834
nucleophilic reactions
- addition: two groups adding across a pi bond, consuming the pi bond in the process
- elimination: loss of two groups from adjacent carbon atoms and the formation of a new pi bond
- substitution: displacement of one group by another
1835
reaction of a ketone or an aldehyde with a cyanide ion produces a
cyanohydrin - attacks electrophilic carbonyl of the ketone or aldehyde
hydroxyl group and cyano group are attached to the same carbon
1836
for D-sugars (determined by highest number chiral carbon), if the anomeric carbon substituent is below plane of the ring, the sugar is the ___-anomer
alpha
R configuration = D-sugar
1837
isoprene unit
C5H8
1838
furanose
five-membered ring
1839
pyranose
six-membered ring
1840
Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy
- determine functional groups
- bond-stretching vibrations and rotations at a certain frequency
- signal intensity dependent on amount of energy absorbed
1841
when determining priority among halogens for Z or E
greater atomic weight = higher priority
1842
ether
R-O-R'
R groups are alkyl groups that may be identical or different
1843
phototransduction cascade - when light hits rods and cones
normally, when light hits rod is turned off -> turns on bipolar cell
PTC is set of step that turn rod off:
1. light hits retinal
2. retinal changes conformation from cis to trans
3. rhodopsin changes conformation
4. transducin released from rhodopsin and binds to phosphodiesterase (PDE)
5. PDE converts cGMP to GMP -> Na+ channels close because they need cGMP to be bound to open
6. less Na+ enter cell so hyperpolarizes and rod turns off
7. glutamate is no longer released so disinhibits ON bipolar cells
8. ON bipolar cells turn on
8. retinal ganglion cell activates and sends signal to optic nerve to brain
1844
mesocortical limbic pathway
reward pathway: dopamine goes up, serotonin goes down (less likely to be satiated)
dopamine produced in ventral tegmental area (VTA)belief persev in midbrain -> VTA sends dopamine to:
- amygdala
- nucleus accumbens (motor function)
- prefrontal cortex (attention)
- hippocampus (memory formation)
1845
5 main tastes
ion channel - sour and salty
GPCR receptors - sweet, umami and bitter
1846
belief perseverance
ignore or rationalize disconfirming facts
1846
temperament
NOT the same as personality
- characteristic emotional reactivity, sociability
- established before babies are exposed to environment
- persistent with age
personality is also believed to be constant over lifetime
1847
latent learning
learned behavior is not expressed until required
1848
Kelley's covariation model
explain the behavior of other people:
- consistency (time) -> high = internal factors
- distinctiveness (situation) = situational
- consensus (people) = group demonstrates same behavior = situational
