MCAT TPR PSYCHOLOGY/ SOCIOLOGY GLOSSARY Flashcards
Absolute poverty
Inability to meet a bare minimum of basic necessities, including clean drinking water, food, safe housing, and reliable access to healthcare
Ach Acetylcholine
neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction, throughout the parasympathetic nervous system, and by the preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system
acetylcholinesterase
enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft
achieved status
those statuses that are considered to be due to largely and individuals efforts
acquisition
in classical conditioning, the process of learning the association between a conditioned stimulus and response
action potential
a localized change in a neuron’s membrane potential that propagates away from its point origin. Action potentials are an all or none process mediated by the opening of voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels when the membrane is brought to threshold potential; opening Na+ channels causes characteristic depolarization, while opening K+ channels re-polarizes the membrane
Activation - synthesis theory
Theory that dreams are simply byproducts of brain activation during REM sleep. Suggests that the content of dreams is not purposeful or meaningful.
Actor-observer bias
tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities
Addiction
A compulsion to do an act repeatedly; can consist of a psychological dependence and/ or physical dependence as evidenced by drug addiction withdraw
Adrenal cortex
outer region of the adrenal gland. the adrenal cortex produces cortisol in response to long-term (chronic) stress and aldosterone in response to low blood pressure or low blood osmolarity
Adrenal medulla
inner region of the adrenal gland, the adrenal medulla is part of the sympathetic nervous system and releases epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine into the blood stream when stimulated. Epi and norepi prolong and enhance the effect of sympathetic stimulation on the body
ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone
a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the adrenal cortex, stimulating the release of cortisol and aldosterone
affect
persons visible emotion in the moment
aggregate
people who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity
aggression
behavior that is forceful hostile or attacking. in sociology, aggression is considered something that is intended to cause harm or promote social dominance within a group
Mary Ainsworth
Famous for her “strange situation experiments” where mothers would leave their infants in an unfamiliar environment to see how the would react. Studies suggested a distinction between securely attachment infants and insecurely attachment infants
Algorithm
step by step detailing of steps that aids with problem solving
alpha waves
low amplitude, high frequency brain waves present in a relaxed state. Alpha waves are the first indicator that a person is ready to drift off to sleep
Altruism
A behavior that helps ensure the success of survival of the rest of the social group, possible at the expense of the success or survival of the individual
Alzheimer’s disease
most prevalent form of dementia, this disease is characterized behaviorally by an inability to form new memories, known as anterograde amnesia
amalgamation
occurs when the majority and minority groups combine to form a new group
Amygdala
Almond-shaped structure deep within the brain that orchestrates emotional experiences
Anal stage
The second stage of Freud’s five psycho-sexual stages, in this stage the child seeks sensual pleasure through the control of elimination
Anterior pituitary gland
Also known as the adrenophypophysis, the anterior pituitary is made of glandular tissue. It makes and secretes six different hormones (FLAT PEG): FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, Prolactin and growth hormone. The anterior pituitary is controlled by releasing and inhibiting factors from the hypothalamus
Anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
Antisocial personality disorder
A psychological disorder characterized by a history of serious behavior problems beginning in adolescence, including significant aggression against people or animals, deliberate property destruction, lying or theft, and serious rule violation
Anxiety disorder
Anxiety is an emotional state of unpleasant physical and mental arousal; a preparation to fight or flee. in a person with an anxiety disorder, the anxiety is intense, frequent, irrational (out of proportion), and uncontrollable; it causes significant distress or impairment of normal functioning
Aqueous humor
a thin, watery fluid found in the anterior segment of the eye (between the lens and cornea). the aqueous humor is constantly produced and drained, and helps bring nutrients to the lens and cornea as well as remove metabolic wastes
Solomon Asch
Conducted research on conformity and group pressure by placing subjects in a room with several confederates (the subjects believed the confederates to be fellow study subjects) and observing the behavior of the subject when the confederates provided clearly wrong answers to questions
Ascribed status
those statuses that are assigned to a person by society regardless of the person’s own efforts
Assimilation
The process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture. Generally, this individual is a member of a minority group who is attempting to conform to the culture of the dominant group
Associative learning
process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another. Two general categories include classical and operant conditioning
Attenuation model of selective attention
model of selective attention in which the mind has an attenuator, like a volume knob, that can tune up inputs to be attended and tune down unattended inputs, rather than totally eliminating them. Accounts for the cocktail party affect.
Attitude
A person’s feelings and beliefs about other people or events around him, and his behavioral reactions based on those underlying evaluations
attribution theory
A theory that attempts to explain how individuals view behavior- both our own behavior and the behavior of others - by attributing behavior to either internal or external causes
Auditory cortex
The area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information
Auditory tube
Also known as the Eustachian tube ,the auditory tube connects the middle ear cavity with the pharynx. it functions to equalize the middle ear pressure with atmospheric pressure so that pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane is equal
Authoritarian parenting
Parenting style in which parents impose strict rules that are expected to be followed unconditionally in an attempt to control children. This style is demanding and often relies punishment
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
The division of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that innervates and controls the visceral organs (everything but the skeletal muscles). It is also known as the involuntary nervous system and can be subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches
Availability heuristic
Mental shortcut of making judgments on the frequency of something occurring based on how readily it is available in our memories
Avoidance learning
Process by which one learns to perform a behavior in order to ensure that a negative or aversion stimulus will not be present
Avoidant personality disorder
A psychological disorder characterized by feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, and undesirability, and a preoccupation with fears of criticism
axon
a long projection off the cell body of a neuron down which an action potential can be propagated
Babinski reflex
in response to the sole of the foot being stroked, a baby’s big toe moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot and the other toes fan out
back stage
in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we can “let down our guard” and be ourselves as opposed to the “front stage” where we are playing a role for others
Albert Bandura
Famous for his Bobo doll studies that demonstrated observational learning; also pioneered the idea of importance of self-efficacy in promoting learning
Baroreceptor
A sensory receptor that responds to changes in pressure; for example, there are baroreceptors in the carotid arteries and the aortic arch that monitor blood pressure
basal nuclei
also known as the basal ganglia, these structures in the brain help to smooth coordinated movement
basilar membrane
The flexible membrane in the cochlea that supports the organ of Corti (the structure that contains hearing receptors) The fibers of the basilar membrane are short and stiff near the oval window and long and flexible near the apex of the cochlea. This difference in structure helps the basilar membrane to transduce pitch
behavioral genetics
study of the role of inheritance in interacting with experience to determine an individual’s personality and behavior
behavioral therapy
this type of therapy uses conditioning to shape a client’s behavior in the desired direction
behaviorism
According to this perspective, personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person’s environment. Behaviorism is deterministic, proposing that people begin as blank slates, and that environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual’s subsequent behavior and personalities
beliefs
the convictions or principles that people within a culture hold
belief bias
tendency to draw conclusions based on what one already believes rather than sound logic
belief perseverance
the maintenance of beliefs even in the face of evidence to the contrary
bilateral descent
a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother’s side and father’s side are considered equally important
biofeedback
means of recording and feeding back information about subtle autonomic responses to an individual in an attempt to train the individual to control previously involuntary responses (for example, muscle tension, heart rate, respiratory rate)
bipolar disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by cyclic mood episodes at both extremes or “poles”, depression and mania. in bipolar I disorder, a person has experienced at least one manic or mixed episode. In bipolar II, the manic episodes are less extreme
bipolar neuron
a neuron with a single axon and a single dendrite, often projecting from opposite sides of the cell body. Bipolar neurons are typically associated with sensory organs
Body dysmorphic disorder
A psychological disorder characterized by a preoccupation with a slight physical anomaly or imagined defect in appearance, often involving the face, hair, breasts, or genitalia
borderline personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by enduring or recurrent instability in impulse control, mood, and image of self and others. impulsive and reckless behavior, together with extreme mood swings, reactivity, and anger, can lead to unstable relationships and damage to both of the person with the disorder and others in his or her life
Bottom up processing
A type of sensory processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up the complex integration of the information occurring in the brain; note that the brain in fact uses a combination of bottom up and top down processing
Broca’s area
Region of the brain located in the left hemisphere of the frontal lobe. Involved with speech production. damage to this part of the brain results in Broca’s aphasia, where individuals know what they want to say but are unable to express it verbally
Bystander effect
the fact that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other people around
Cannon-Bard theory
Theory of emotion that asserts that the psychological and cognitive aspects of emotion occur simultaneously and collectively lead to the behavioral reaction
Capitalism
An economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned and goods/ services are provided for a profit
caste system
a closed social stratification where people can do nothing to change the category that they are born into
catatonic-type schizophrenia
psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of catatonic behavior (including extremely retarded or excited motor activity)
category
people who share similar characteristics but are not otherwise tied together as a group
Raymond Cattell
A psychologist interested in personality, who used factor analysis with hundreds of surface traits to identify which traits were related to each other. By this process, he identified sixteen source traits, and by factor analysis reduced fifteen of these into five global factors: extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self-control
Central executive
Part of Allen Baddlely’s model of working memory that oversees the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer. Responsible for shifting and dividing attention
Central nervous system (CNS)
Subdivision of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord
Central route
Cognitive route of persuasion based on the content and deeper aspects of the argument
cerebellum
region of the brain that coordinates and smooths skeletal muscle activity
cerebral cortex
a thin (4mm) layer of gray matter on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres. the cerebral cortex is the conscious mind, and is functionally divided into four lobes; the frontal lobes, parietal lobes, temporal lobes, and occipital lobes
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
a clear fluid that circulates around and through the brain and spinal cord. CSF helps to physically support the brain and acts as a shock absorber. it also exchanges nutrients and wastes with the brain and spinal cord
Charismatic authority
a form of leadership where devotion is reliant upon an individual with exceptional charisma (persuasiveness, charm, and ability to connect with people)
chemical synapse
a type of synapse at which a chemical (NT) is released from the axon of a neuron into the synaptic cleft, where it binds to receptors on the next structure (either another neuron or an organ)
chemoreceptor
a sensory receptor that responds to specific chemicals. some examples are gustatory (taste) receptors, olfactory (smell) receptors, and central chemoreceptors (respond to changes in CSF pH)
Choroid
Darkly-pigmented middle layer of the eyeball, found between the sclera (outer layer) and the retina (inner layer)
chunking
memory technique in which information to be remembered is organized into discrete groups of data. This clustering allows more information to be remembered overall
church
sociology, type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the political and economic structures of society, and attempts to provide an all-encompassing worldview for followers
ciliary muscle
muscle that helps focus light on the retina by controlling the curvature of the lens of the eye
circadian rhythm
the waxing and waning of alertness throughout the 24-hour day
class system
social stratification where people are grouped together by similar wealth, income, education, and the like, but the classes are open, meaning that people can strive to reach a higher class (or fall to a lower one)
Classical conditioning
process in which two stimuli are paired in a way that changes a response to one of them
cochlea
curled structure in the inner ear that contains the membranes and hair cells used to transduce sound waves into action potentials
cocktail party effect
phenomenon of information of personal importance from previously unattended channels “catching” ones attention
coercive organizations
organization in which members do not have a choice in joining
cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
a type of therapy that addresses thoughts and behaviors that are maladaptive by using goal-oriented and systematic techniques
Cognitive dissonance theory
A theory that explains that we feel tension (dissonance) whenever we hold two thoughts or beliefs (cognitions) that are incompatible, or when attitudes and behaviors don’t match. When this occurs, we try to reduce this unpleasant feeling of tension by making one of our views of the world match how we feel or what we’ve done
Cognitive psychology
tradition of psychology that focuses on the brain, cognitions, and thoughts as mediating learning and stimulus - response behaviors
Concrete operational stage
Piaget’s third stage of his developmental theory where children aged 7 to 11 learn to think logically and learn the principle of conservation as well as mathematical principles
Conditioned response
A previously unconditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus that has become a learned response to a conditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus
An originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it can produce the conditioned response without the unconditioned stimulus being present
Cones
photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to bright light and provide color vision
confederates
In psychological and social research, a confederate is a person who is working with the experimenter and posing as part of the experiment, but the subjects are not aware of his affiliation
Confirmation bias
a tendency to search only for information that confirms a preconceived conclusion
Conflict theory
a theory that views society as being in competition for limited resources. according to conflict theory, society is a place where there will be inequality in resources, therefore individuals will compete for social, political, and material resources like money, land, power, and leisure
Conformity
phenomenon of adjusting behavior or thinking based on the behavior or thinking of others
consciousness
awareness of self, internal states, and the environment
conversion disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a change in sensory or motor function that has no discernible physical or psychological cause, and which seems to be significantly affected by psychological factors. The symptoms of conversion disorder begin or worsen after an emotional conflict or other stressor
Cornea
Clear portion of the tough outer layer the eyeball, found over the iris and the pupil
corpus callosum
largest bundle of white matter (axons) connecting the two cerebral hemispheres
cortisol
this steroid hormone is released during chronic stress; it shifts the body’s use of fuel from glucose towards fats and proteins, thus “sparing” the glucose for the brain’s use. Prolonged release of cortisol is associated with suppressed immunity and increased susceptibility to illness
Crude birth rate
the annual number of live birth per thousand people in a population
crude death rate
annual number of deaths per thousand people in a population
Cult (also known as a new religious movement)
religious organization that is far outside society’s norms and often involves a very different lifestyle
Cultural capital
the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility
cultural relativism
Judging another culture based on its own cultural standards
Cultural universals
Patterns or traits that are common to all people. Cultural universals tend to pertain to basic human survival and needs, such as securing food and shelter, and also pertain to events that every human experiences, including birth, death, illness
Cyclothymic disorder
a psychological disorder that is similar to bipolar disorder but the moods are less extreme. A person with cyclothymic disorder has experienced cyclic moods, including many hypomanic episodes, as well as many episodes of depressed mood that are milder than a major depressive episode for at least two years
Death instinct
according to psychoanalytic theory, the death instinct drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious with to die or hurt oneself or others
deindividuation
an explanation of peoples’ startling and often uncharacteristic behavior when situations provide a high degree of arousal and a low sense of responsibility
delusion
a false belief that is not due to culture, and persists despite evidence that it is false
demography
the study of human population dynamics, including the size, structure, and distribution of a population, and changes in the population over time due to birth, death, and migration
dendrite
a projection off the cell body of a neuron that receives nerve impulses from a different neuron and sends the impulse to the cell body. Neurons can have one or several dendrites
Dependent personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by the need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of himself or herself
Depersonalization disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off or detached from one’s body or mental processes, as if observing one’s self from the outside
depolarization
movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from the resting potential to a more positive membrane potential
depressant
class of drugs that depress or slow down neural activity, includes alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opiates
depth of processing
the idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remember
deviance
violation of society’s standards of conduct or expectations
diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM)
universal authority on the classification and diagnosis of psychological disorders; the current latest edition is the fifth edition DSM-5
diencephalon
the portion of the forebrain that includes the thalamus and the hypothalamus
difference threshold (also called the just noticeable difference JND)
the threshold is the minimum noticeable difference between any two sensory stimuli 50% of the time
discrimination
unjust treatment of a group, based on group characteristics (age, sex, race, ethnicity, disability)
dishabituation
the resoration to full strength of a response to a stimulus that had previously become weakened through habituation
disorganized-type schizophrenia
a psychological disorder that is characterized by psychosis in the form of flat or inappropriate affect, disorganized speech, and disorganized behavior
dissociative amnesia
a psychological disorder characterized by at least one episode of suddenly forgetting some important personal information, usually related to severe stress or trauma
dissociative disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a person’s thoughts, feelings, perceptions, memories, or behaviors being separated from consciousness awareness and control, in a way that is not explainable as mere forgetfulness
divided attention
ability to focus on multiple tasks simultaneously
downward mobility
a decrease in social class
dramaturgical approach
assumes that people are theatrical performers and that everyday life is a stage; just as actors project a certain on screen persona, people in society choose what kind of image they want to communicate verbally and nonverbally to others. Also called the dramaturgical perspective
drive
an urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness. Drives can be useful for alerting an organism that it is no longer in a state of homeostasis
drive reduction theory
a theory about the impact of motivation on human behavior that suggests that a physiological need (a drive) creates an aroused state that motivates the organism to reduce that need by engaging in some behavior
Dual coding hypothesis
a hypothesis that it is easier to remember words with associated images that either words or images alone
Emile Durkheim
Considered the father of sociology and a major proponent of functionalism. Pioneer of modern social research and established the field of sociology as separate and distinct from psychology and political philosophy
Dynamic equilibrium
in sociology, dynamic equilibrium occurs when complex societies contain many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability
dyssomnias
broad category of disorders involving abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. includes insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea
dysthymic disorder
a psychological disorder characterized as a less intense, chronic form of depression. A person with dysthymic disorder has felt milder symptoms of depression most days for at least two years with symptoms never absent for more than two months, and without experiencing a major episode
ecclesia
a dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religion
echoic memory
memory for sound, which lasts for about 3-4 seconds
effector
the organ that carries out the command send along a particular motor neuron
efferent neurons
a neurons that carries information (action potential) away from the CNS; a motor neuron
egalitarian family
a family system where spouses are treated as equals an may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions
ego
according to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the ego is ruled by the reality principle, and uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id (the unconscious driving force ruled by the pleasure principle)
ego defense mechanism
to cope with this anxiety and protect the ego, all people develop ego defense mechanisms that unconsciously deny or distort reality. Ego defense mechanisms are therefore normal, and become unhealthy only when taken to extremes
elaboration likelihood model
model that explains when people may be persuaded by just the content of an argument, and when they may be persuaded by more superficial characteristics such as the appearance of the person delivering the message or the length of the argument
Electra complex
complex occurs during the phallic stage (the third stage of Freud’s five psychosexual stages) when a female child is sexually attracted to her father and hostile toward her mother, who is seen as a rival
electrical synapse
type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing the ions (and therefore the action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell
EEG electroencephalogram
recording of electrical impulses in the brain
electromyogram EMG
recording of skeletal muscle movements
electrooculogram
recording of eye movements
empathy
the ability to identify with others’ emotions
encoding
the process of transferring sensory information into the memory system
endocrine gland
a ductless gland that secretes hormones into the blood
endocrine system
a system of ductless glands that secrete chemical messengers (hormones) into the blood
endogamy
practice of marrying within a particular group
environmental justice
when people in poorer communities are more likely to be subjected to negative environmental impacts to their health and well-being
epinephrine
hormone produced and secreted by the adrenal medulla that prolongs and increases the effects of sympathetic nervous system
episodic buffer
part of Allen Baddeley’s model of working memory that interacts with information in the long-term memory
episodic memory
Autobiographical memory for information of personal importance
EPSP
excitatory post synaptic potential; a slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential of that cell closer to the threshold for an action potential
Erik Erikson
Erikson extended Freud’s theory of developmental stages in two ways. Erikson added social and interpersonal factors, to supplements Freud’s focus on unconscious conflicts within a person. And Erikson delineated additional developmental stages and conflicts in adolescence and adulthood, to supplements Freud’s focus on early childhood. Erikson’s stages include: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair.
Escape learning
through operant conditioning, this is the process of learning to engage in a particular behavior in order to get away from a negative or aversive stimulus
estrogen
Primary female sex hormone. Estrogen stimulates the development of the female secondary sex characteristics during puberty, maintains those characteristics during adulthood, stimulates the development of new uterine lining after menstruation, and stimulates mammary gland development during pregnancy
ethnicity
a socially defined concept referring to whether or not people identify with each other based on shared social experience or ancestry
ethnocentrism
tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one’s own culture
executive functions
higher ordered thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision making
exocrine gland
a gland that secretes its product into a duct, which ultimately carries the product to the surface of the body or into a body cavity. Sweat glands are an example.
exogamy
a requirement to marry outside a particular group with it being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives
explicit (declarative) memory
memories that can be consciously recalled, such as factual knowledge
external locus of control
the belief that one does not have control over outcomes, but they are controlled by outside forces
extinction
in classical conditioning, the unpairing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, accomplished by introducing the conditioned stimulus repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
false consensus
occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do (even though they may not)
false memory
inaccurate memory created by the power of imagination or suggestion
feature detection theory
a theory of visual perception that proposes that certain neurons fire for individual and specific features of a visual stimulus, such as shape, color, line, movements, et cetera
fecundity
the potential reproductive capacity of a female in a population
feral children
neglected or abandoned children who grow up without human contact or care; much of our knowledge about socialization comes from these individuals who were not socialized
filter model
model of selective attention that suggests that information from a sensory buffer is put through a filter that allows only selected inputs through
Five factor model (Costa and McCrae)
a model developed to explain personality using fiver overarching personality traits, which include: extroversion neuroticism, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness
fixed-interval schedule
reinforcement schedule in which the reward offered after a set period of time has passed
fixed-ratio schedule
reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after a set number of instances of a behavior
folkways
norms that are more informal, yet shape everyday behavioral styles
food desert
an area, typically in a highly populated lower-income urban environment, whereby fresh, healthy, food is difficult to find
foot in the door phenomenon
a strategy that involves enticing people to take small actions, and then gradually asking for lager and larger commitments
formal operational stage
Piaget’s fourth stage of his developmental theory. From age 12- adulthood. during this stage, people learn abstract and moral reasoning
Freud
Sigmund Freud. Australian neurologist who is considered the founding father of psychoanalytic theory
front stage
in the dramaturgical approach, this is where we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people
frustration-agression principle
this principle suggest that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggression
functional fixedness
a tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging
Functionalism (structural functionalism)
the oldest of the main theories of sociology, this theory conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different parts and organs
Fundamental attribution error
when we tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person’s character or personality on their behavior
fundamentalist
people who observe strict adherence to religious beliefs
Phineas Gage
Famous case of man who suffered damage to his prefrontal cortex after a railroad tie blasted him in the head. Symptoms, due to damage in this area, ranged from impulsivity, an inability to stick to plans, and an inability to demonstrate empathy
game theory
a theory used to try and predict large and complex systems such as the overall behavior of a population
ganglion
clump of gray matter (unmyelinated neuron cell bodies) found in the PNS
General fertility rate
annual number of live births / 1000 women of childbearing age within a population
general intelligence
foundational base of intelligence that supports more specialized abilities
Generalization
in classical conditioning, the process by which stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus also became conditioned stimuli that elicit the conditioned response
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
a psychological disorder characterized by tension or anxiety much of the time about many issues, but without the presence of panic attacks
generalized other
when a person tries to imagine what is expected of them from society, they are taking on the perspective of the generalized other
genital stage
fifth of Freud’s five psychosexual stages, this stage begins in adolescence, when sexual themes resurface and a person’s life/ sexual energy fuels activities such as friendships, arts, sports, and careers
Genotype
genetic makeup of a person / organism
Gesalt psychology
a theory that the brain processes information in a holistic manner, specifically for visual information the brain tends to make assumptions in order to detect the whole, instead of processing all the individual parts
global stratification
a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, and power of various countries
glucagon
peptide hormone produced and secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas. it primarily targets the liver, stimulating the breakdown of glycogen, thus increasing blood glucose levels
gonadotropins
anterior pituitary tropic hormones; FSH, LH stimulate the gonads (ovaries and testes) to produce gametes and to secrete sex steroids
gray matter
unmyelinated neuron cell bodies and short unmyelinated axons
group
collection of a number of people (few as two) who regularly interact and identify with each other, sharing similar norms, values, and expectations
group polarization
phenomenon where groups tend to intensify their prexisting views of their members until the average view is more extreme than it initially was
group pressure
pressure exerted by a group that causes one to change behaviors, values, attitudes, or beliefs
groupthink
phenomenon where within a group the desire for harmony or conformity results in an easy consensus even if the final decision is not the best one
growth hormone
hormone released by the anterior pituitary that targets all cells in the body. stimulates whole body growth in children and adolescents. increases cell turnover rate in adults
Ludwig Gumplowicz
Expanded upon Marx’s ideas about conflict theory by proposing that society is shaped by war and conquest, and that cultural and ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over other groups
gustatory receptors
chemoreceptors on the tongue that respond to chemicals in food
habit
action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic
habituation
a decrease in the response to a stimulus after repeated presentations
hair cells
sensory receptors found in the inner ear. cochelar hair cells respond to vibrations in the cochela caused by sound waves, and vestibular hair cells respond to changes in position and acceleration (used for balance)
hallucination
a false sensory perception that occurs while a person is conscious (not during sleep or delirium)
hallucinogens
Class of drugs also known as psychedelics that distort perceptions in the absence of any sensory input, creating hallucinations or altered sensory perceptions. Includes marijuana and LSD
halo effect
a tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics
harlow, harry, and margaret
researchers known for their controversial experiments with monkeys in which they showed that baby monkeys are drawn to mothers that provide comfort rather than simply food. Also showed that monkey raised in isolation develeoped severe mental and social deficits
healthcare disparities
population-specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, and the quality of healthcare across different social groups
heuristics
mental shortcuts used for problem solving. using heuristics sometimes sacrafices accuracy for speed
hippocampus
brain structure located in the medial temporal lobe of the brain and plays a key role in forming memories. damage to this part of the brain can lead to an inability to form new memories, or anterograde amnesia
histrionic personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a strong desire to be the center of attention, and seeking to attract attention through personal appearance or seductive behavior
humanistic psychology
psychological perspective developed partially in response to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes an individuals inherent drive toward self-actualization. Carl Rogers is most associated with humanistic psychology
hypnotism
structured social interaction wherein an individual is instructed to focus attention a particular way, relax, and let go. Hypnotized individuals may be more suceptible to accepting suggestions
hypochondriasis
a psychological disorder characterized by a preoccupation with having a severe illness
hypophysis
pituitary gland
hypothalamus
brain structure located above the brain stem that is involved in many autonomic processes including body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, and sleep. It is also involved the psychological aspects of emotion
iconic memory
the brief photographic memory for visual information, which decays in a few tenths of a second
id
According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the largely unconscious id is the source of energy and instincts. Ruled by the pleasure principle, the id seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure. it does not use logical or moral reasoning, and it does not distinguish mental images from external objects. According to Freud, young children function almost completely from the id.
ideal self
Constructed out of life experiences, societal expectations, and admirable traits from role models. The ideal self is the person you ought to be, while the real self is the person you actually are
identity formation (or individuation)
the development of a distinct individual personality
illusory correlation
a perceived relationship between two things even when non exists
implicit (procedural) memory
memory that involves conditioned associates and knowledge of how to do something
impression management or self-presentation
the conscious or unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others. This is achieved by controlling the amount and type of information and the social interaction
in-group
a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who they are
incentive theory
a theory that suggests that incentives (objects and events in the environment that either help induce or discourage certain behaviors) motivate human behavior
inclusive fitness
a theory that suggests that cooperation among organisms (including altruistic behavior) promotes genetic success, meaning that even if not all the organisms survive to reproduce, some of their genes will still be passed to the next generation
incongruity
the emotional result when the real self falls short of the ideal self
infantile amnesia
a lack of explicit memory for events that occurred before the age of roughly 3.5 years. While people are unable to recall memories from this part of their life, learning and memory do still occur. The reason for infantile amnesia is unknown
information-processing models
models for cognition that assume that information from the environment is processed by our computer-like minds through a series of steps including attention, perception, and storage into memory
informational social influence
the process of complying because we want to do the right thing and we feel like others “know something i don’t know”
insecure attachment
style of relating to others that forms when an infant has caregivers who are inconsistently responsive or unresponsive to needs. In Ainsworth’s experiments, insecurely attached infants were found to be less likely to explore their surroundings in the presence of their mother. They may be extremely upset or demonstrate indifference when the mother returned to the room
insight learning
Sudden flash of inspiration that provides a solution to a problem. The “aha” moment where previously learned ideas or behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways
insomnia
most common sleep disorder, characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep
instinct
behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout species
institutional discrimination
refers to unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives
intellectual disability
classification for individuals who have an IQ below 70 and functional impairment in their everyday life. Previously called “mental retardation”
intelligence
the ability to learn from experience, problem solve, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
intergenerational mobility
a change (increase or decrease) in social class between parents and children within a family
internal locus of control
the belief of and individual that she is able to influence outcomes through her own efforts and actions
interneuron
a neuron found completely within the central nervous system. interneurons typically connect sensory and motor neurons
intragenerational mobility
differences in social class between members of the same generation
IPSP
inhibitory postsynaptic potential; a slight hyperpolarization of postsynaptic cell, moving the membrane potential of that cell further from threshold
iris
a pigmented membrane found just in front of the lens of the eye. In the center of the iris is the pupil, a hole through which light enters the eyeball. the iris regulates the diameter of the pupil in response to the brightness of light
James-Lange Theory
theory of emotion that claims that emotional experience is the result of physiological and behavioral responses
Just world phenomenon
the tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve. when bad things happen to others, it is the result of their actions or their failure to act, and when good things happen to us, it is the because we deserved it
Justification of effort
when people modify their attitudes to match their behaviors, specifically those involving effort
