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MCAT Psych and soc terms Flashcards

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1
Q

BThe 3 types of neurons in the nervous system

A

Motor neurons (efferent), interneurons, sensory neurons (afferent)

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2
Q

Nervous system main 2 divisions

A

central and peripheral

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3
Q

Central nervous system divisions

A

brain and spinal cord

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4
Q

Peripheral nervous system divisions

A

Nervous tissue outside of the brain and spinal cord. Includes 31 pairs of spinal nerves, 10 of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves (not olfactory and optic). Divided into Somatic and Autonomic.

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5
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

sensory and motor neurons in the skin, joints and muscles. Use afferent fibers for sensory, efferent for motor.

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6
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

composed on the sympathetic and parasympathetic.

Manages INVOLUNTARY things, such as HR, temp, smooth muscle, respiration, sweating,

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7
Q

Sympathetic NS

A

Activated by situations of stress. It: Dilates pupils, inhibits salivation, relaxes bronchi, accelerated HR, Sweating stimulation or piloreception, inhibits peristalsis and secretion, stimulates glucose production and release, secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline, inhibits bladder contraction, stimulates orgasm. THESE ARE ALL FROM T1-T12!!

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8
Q

Parasympathetic NS

A

rest and digest. Contracts pupils, stimualtes saliva, constricts bronchi, stimulates secretion and peristalsis, stimulates bile release These are all controlled from the VAGUS NERVE.
Contracts bladder, this is from the PELVIC SPLANCHNIC NERVE.

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9
Q

Layers of the brain covering from outer to inner

A

Skin, periosteum, bone, dura mater, arachnid mater, pia mater (last 3 are the meninges)

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10
Q

Where is CSF produced

A

Specialized cells in the ventricles (internal cavities) of the brain

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11
Q

3 basic subdivisions of the brain

A

forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain

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12
Q

Forebrain structures

A

Cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, thalamus, hypothalamus

(previously called prosencephalon in embryo)

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13
Q

Midbrain structures

A

Inferior and superior colliculi

called mesencephalon in embryo

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14
Q

Hindbrain structures

A

cerebellum, medulla oblongata, reticular formation

called rhombencephalon in embryo

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15
Q

Cerebellum

A

Refined motor movements, posture and balance, speech slurring, alcohol impairs this part.

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16
Q

Medulla oblongata

A

Vitals functioning, breathing, HR, blood pressure. Pons is above and contains pathways from cortex to medulla sensory and motor.

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17
Q

Reticular formation

A

Arousal and alertness

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18
Q

Inferior and superior colliculi

A

Sensorymotor reflexes

Recieves motor and sensory info from rest of body. Superior receives visual sensory, and inferior receives auditory.

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19
Q

Thalamus

A

relay station for sensory info

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20
Q

Hypothalamus

A

maintains homestasis and integrates the endocrine system via the hypophyseal portal system that conencts it to the anterior pituitary.
Lateral (LH) - Hunger center, triggers eating and drinking
Ventromedial (VMH) - Triggers satiation or stopping
Anterior (AH) - Sexual behavior.

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21
Q

Basal ganglia

A

smoothens movement and helps maintain postural stability

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22
Q

Limbic system

A

controls emotion and memory, includes septal nuclei (pleasure seeking), amygdala (fear and aggression), hyppocampus (memory), fornix (communication within limbic system)

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23
Q

Neuropyschology

A

Study of functions and behaviours associates with specific regions of the brain.

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24
Q

Neuropsych research

A

study lesions in animals, brain stimulation, cortical mapping, EEG, Regional cerebral blood low (rCBF),

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25
Q

Other Diencephalon parts

A 
Posterior pituitary (axonal projections from from hapothalamus and releases ADH and Oxytocin)
Pineal gland - melatonin secretion
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26
Q

Cerebral cortex is divided into 4 lobes

A

frontal, parietal , occipital, temporal

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27
Q

Frontal lobe

A

executive function, impulse control, long-term planning n prefrontal (association area), motor function in primary motor cortex (in front of primary somatosensory cortex but part of frontal lobe on the precentral gyrus just in front of the central sulcus - it is considered a projection area), speech in Broca’s area.
If injured, can become impulsive, make lude remarks, apathetic.

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28
Q

Parietal lobe

A

Sensation of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain in somatosensory corex (postcentral gyrus), spatial processng, orientation, manipulation.

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29
Q

Occipital

A

visual processing

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30
Q

Temporal

A 
Sound processing (auditory cortex) speech perception (wernicke's area) memory and emotion (limbic system)
Electrical stim on this lobe can cause deep memories to arise, as the hippocampus is burried deep inside the temporal lobe.
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31
Q

Anterograde amnesiaCotnra

A

cannot form long term memories, H.M patient is a large case, parts of the temporal lobes including amygdala and hippocampus were removed.

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32
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

can occur from head injury, cannot recall events from before injury.

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33
Q

motor homunculus

A

how neurons are arranged in motor cortex (also have a sensory one for sensory cortex)

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34
Q

Broca’s area

A

In the frontal lobe, highly necessary for speech, usually found on one side of the brain, the LEFT for both left and right handed people.

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35
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

Used for language reception and comprehension. In temporal lobe.

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36
Q

Contralateral

A

usually how the brain communicates, left side controls right side of body, right side controls left side of body. Ipsilateral means same side.

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37
Q

Dominant hemisphere

A

usually left, primarily analytic, language, logic, math. Letters and words from visual, language related sounds and soeech, reading, writich, complex voluntary mvmt.

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38
Q

Non-dominant hemisphere

A

usually right, intuition, creativity, music cognition, spatial processing. Can sense emotional tone of the language, moods. This is REGARDLESS of handedness. Faces from visual system, music and emotions from auditory and language.

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39
Q

Corpus callosum

A

connects the two hemispheres, function discovered in epileptic patients,

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40
Q

Acetylcholine - influences on behavior

A

Voluntary muscle control, parasympathetic NS, attention, alertness. Found in central and peripheral NS. Alzheimers = loss of cholinergic neurons conencting w/ hippocampus.

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41
Q

Epinephrine and norepinephrine - influences on behavior

A

fight or flight responses, wakefulness, alertness. Called Catecholamines, monoamines or biogenic amines. Epi (adrenaline), norepi (noradrenaline). Sympathetic NS. Norepi = local effects
Epi = secreted by adrenal medulla and acts systematically as a hormone.
Low levels of norepi = depression, high = mania and anxiety.

Secreted by the Adrenal MEDULLA.

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42
Q

Dopamine - behavior influences

A

smooth movements, postural stability. Found in basal ganglia. may have a role in schizophrenia if imbalanced, Loss of hte dopaminergic neurons in BG, causes the issues w/ mvmt.

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43
Q

Serotonin - behavior influence

A

mood, sleep, eating, dreaming. Also thought to be linked to depression and mania.

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44
Q

GABA and glycine - behavior

A

brain “Stabilization”, or inhibitor. Produces IPSP. Causes hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane.
Glycine - proteinogenic aa, increases Cl influx into neuron and hyperpolarizes it.

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45
Q

Glutamate - behavior

A

Brain “excitation”, another aa, acts in CNS, exitatory.

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46
Q

Endorphins

A

Natural painkillers

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47
Q

Peptide neurotransmitters

A

endorphins, slow and have a long effect.

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48
Q

Endocrine system players

A

Hypothalamus - posterior pituirary is separate, anterior pituitary - adrenal glands - gonads

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49
Q

Adrenal glands

A

medulla - epi and norepi

Cortex - corticosteroids (cortisol, testosterone, estrogen)

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50
Q

Innate behavior

A

Genetically programmed seen regardless of environment or experience.

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51
Q

Learned behavior

A

As a result of experience or environment

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52
Q

Adaptive value

A

the extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing evolutionary fitness or the species (adaptation through natural selection)

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53
Q

Nature vs nurture

A

genetics vs environment, often studied using family studies, twins, adoptions.

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54
Q

Family studies

A

cannot distinguish between nature and nurture. Assumes that genetically related individuals are more genotypically similar.

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55
Q

Twins

A

MZ - one zygote splits (100% same genes)
DZ - 2 separate zygotes (50% same genes)
Concordance rates - likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait.
Assumes that twins share same environment and so any dif between MZ and DZ twins is due to genetics.
Looks at hereditary influences. Should look at MZ twins raised separately or together.

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56
Q

Adoptions

A

see the importance of enviornment. Eg. IQ is heritable.

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57
Q

Neurulation

A

ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow = neural groove surrounded by 2 x neural folds (cells on top = neural crest) the rest will be the neural tube = CNS
Alar plate - sensory
Basal plate - motor
3 swellings -> 5 swellings

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58
Q

Primitive reflexes

A

rooting, moro, babinski and grasping

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59
Q

Rooting reflex

A

automatic turning head to direction of stimulus (eg touch of cheek)sucking and swallowing.

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60
Q

Moro reflex

A

fling out arms when there are abrupt mvmts of the head. Then slow retract of arms and crying. If continues after 1ye = developmental difficulties. Look for asymmetry, and time it takes from onset of reflex to disspearance.

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61
Q

Grasping reflex

A

when infant closes fingers around an object if something touches palm.

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62
Q

Babinski reflex

A

Toes spread when bottom of foot is stimulated.

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63
Q

Motor skills categories

A

Gross motor skills eg. large muscle groups and whole body mvmt
Fien motor skills - fingers, toes, eyes, drawing catching waving

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64
Q

Social development in young children

A

stranger anxiety, separation anxiety

solitary play - onlooker - parallel play

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65
Q

1st year physical and motor, social, and language

A

everythi ng in mouth, sits with support, crawls, fear of falling at 9mo, pincer grasp
Parental figure central, trust issues key, stranger anxiety, solitary play

Laugh at 4mo., repetitive responding, mama and dada

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66
Q

age 1 motor, social and language

A

Walk, climb stairs, hand preference, kick and throw

separation anxiety, parent dependency, onlooker paly

10 words

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67
Q

Age 2 motor, social and language

A

High activity, doorknobs and jars, scribbles, throw ball

selfish and self centered, imitates, may be aggressive, no is fav word, parallel play

Uses pronowns, 250 words, 2 word sentences,

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68
Q

Age 3 motor, social and language

A

uses 900 words, understands 3600, complete sentences,

fixed gender identity and gender specific play, knows full name

Rides tricycle, alternates feet going upstairs, toilet training, draws, catches, unbuttons.

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69
Q

Sensation

A

transfuction, conversion of physical, electronic, auditory, and other info from environment internal or external, to electrical signals in the NS. Peripheral nervous system info.

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70
Q

Perception

A

Processing of the sensory information and its significance. Sensory and brain and spinal cord. Associations etc.
Linked to internal and external biases.

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71
Q

Photoreceptors

A

respond to electromagnetic waves in the visible spectrum

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72
Q

Hair cells

A

respond to mvmt of fluid in the inner ear structures

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73
Q

Nociceptors

A

respond to painful or noxious stimuli (somatosensation)

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74
Q

Thermoreceptors

A

respond to changes in temperature (thermosensation)

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75
Q

Osmoreceptors

A

respond to osmolarity of the blood (homeostasis of water)

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76
Q

Olfactory receptors

A

respond to volatile compounds

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77
Q

Taste receptors

A

Respond to dissolved compounds

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78
Q

Sensory receptor pathway

A

sensory receptor neuron - ganglion (cell body collection outside of CNS) - projection areas in the brain

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79
Q

Absolute threshold

A

(Threshold - minimum stim that causes a change in signal transduction) Absolute is the minimum energy needed to activate a sensory system. Threshold in sensation, not perception. Below this the signal will not be transduced.

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80
Q

Threshold of conscious perception

A

(eg. limina, or subliminal perception) Stimulus is transduced and arrives at CNS, but is not sent to any higher order regions that control attention and conciousness.

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81
Q

Just noticeable difference

A

Weber’s law, constant ratio between the amount the stimulus needs to change to produce a JND and the magniture of the original stimulus. this ratio is: change in stimulus over background intensity of stimulus = k (a constant that is different for each person). LINEAR releationship between background intensity and incremental threshold, direct.

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82
Q

Signal detection theory

A

perceptions of a stimulus an be affected by nonsensory factors such as experiences (memory), motives, and expectations. Perception changes based on the internal psychological and external environmental context.

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83
Q

Response bias

A

tendency of subjects to respond to a stimulus in a particular way due to nonsensical factors.

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84
Q

Catch trial vs noise trial

A

catch = signal presented noise = signal not presented

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85
Q

Hit, false alarm, miss, correct negative

A

Hit - correctly perceived signal
False alarm - incorrectly said there was a signal on a noise trial
Miss - did not perceive signal when there was actually one
Correct negative - did not perceive signal when there was none.

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86
Q

Adaptiation

A

decrease in response to a stimulus over time

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87
Q

White of the eye

A

sclera (does not cover cornea)

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88
Q

Vessels of the eyes

A

retinal and choroidal vessels

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89
Q

Passage of light from outside to end of eye

A

cornea, anterior chamber, past the constrictor pupillae (parasympathetic control) and dilator pupillae (sympathetic) = iris, posterior chamber, lens, retina

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90
Q

Lens ligaments

A

suspensory ligaments are pulled by the cilliary muscle to make it flatten or relax to make it more round = accomodation.

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91
Q

Gel substance than supports the retina

A

vitreous humor

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92
Q

Production area of Aqueous humor

A

posterior chamber. Bathes front part of the eye before draining into canal of Schlemm.

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93
Q

Choroid

A

continuoud with iris and cilliary body

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94
Q

Retina

A

back of eye, composed of blood vessels and photoreceptors to turn the incoming photons into electrical signals.

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95
Q

Duplexity theory

A

retina has 2 kinds of photoreceptors, ones for lights and dark and those for colour. Rods (12 mil.) and cones (6mil.), respectively.

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96
Q

Cone types

A

Short (blue), medium (green), long (red). Better in bright light and can sense fine details. Fovea only has cones.

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97
Q

Rods

A

better in reduced light, only have a signle pigment called Rhodopsin.

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98
Q

Cell pathway from rod/cone - optic nerve

A

Rod and cone, horizontal cells, acrimine cell, ganglion cell, optic nerve fiber. This means resolution is lost due to the converging of input. Optic chiasm, lateral genculate nucleus in thalamus, visual cortex in occipital lobe.

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99
Q

Optic chiasm

A

optic nerves from left and right sides of each eye cross. So that input from the left side of each eye goes to the left, and input from the right of each eye goes to the right.

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100
Q

Analyze color, shape and motion ability

A

parallel processing
color - cones
shape - parvocellular cells (high spatial resolution, but low temporal resolution)
motion - magnocellular cells (high temporal res but low spatial resolution.

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101
Q

colour cells

A

cones

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102
Q

Shape cells

A

parvocellular cells

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103
Q

motion cells

A

magnocellular cells

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104
Q

Outer ear

A

Pinna (auricle), to tympanic membrane

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105
Q

Tympanic membrane

A

vibrates with incoming sound waves.

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106
Q

louder

A

greater sound intensity so higher amplitude of vibration,

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107
Q

Middle ear

A

ossicles (malleus, incus and stapes) - baseplate of stapes rests on the oval window of cochlea and is border to inner ear.

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108
Q

inner ear

A

cochlea, vestibule and semicircular canals

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109
Q

Cochlea

A

3 different parts called scalae, outer 2 are filled with perilymph, middle one with endplymph (and holds hearing apapratus organ or corti). Sound vibrations are transmitted through perilymph, and to the basilar membrane. Tectoral membrane, doesnt move and is on top of the organ of corti. OOC is covered in hair cells which bend with the vibrations and cause channels under hairs to open and depolarize causing an eletrical signal.

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110
Q

Linear acceleration detection

A

in vestibule there are the utricle and saccule, these contain modified hair cells covered with otoliths, which resist motion with acceleration and bend hair cells.

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111
Q

Rotational acceleration detection

A

semicircular canals, aranged at 90 degrees, each have ampula with hair cells. Endolymph resists motion in these and causes hair cells to depolarize and send signal.

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112
Q

Auditory pathway

A

cochlea - vestibulocochlear nerve - medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) of thalamus - auditory cortex (temporal lobe). Some info sent to superior olive (localization) and inferior colliculus (startle reflex).

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113
Q

Tonotypical organization

A

thickness of basilar membrane varies. Sounds of highest frequency pitch are hear at the base of cochlea, vs high frequency sounds are heard at the apex. Tells brain the pitch of the sound. Swaying of stereocilia in the endolymph opens ion channels and causes a potential.

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114
Q

Smell

A

volatile or aerosolized chemicals detected by olfactory chemoreceptors, as they enter the nose and arrive at the olfactory epithelium. Signal goes to olfactory bulb and then to olfactory tract to higher regions of brain including limbic system.

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115
Q

Taste

A

also chemoreceptors but this time dissolved compounds, cand they are called taste buds found in groups called papillae.

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116
Q

Deep pressure and vibration

A

pacinian corpuscles

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117
Q

Light touch

A

meissner corpuscles

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118
Q

Deep pressure and texture

A

Merkle cells

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119
Q

Stretch

A

Ruffini endings

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120
Q

Pain and temp

A

Free nerve endings

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121
Q

Somatosensation

A

sent to somaosensory cortex

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122
Q

2 point threshold

A

same as JND but with skin, minimum difference between 2 points on skin to be able to detect a difference, depends on nerve density in the region.

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123
Q

physiological zero

A

temperature judged relative to this, normal skin temp (86-97 degrees F).

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124
Q

gate theory of pain

A

Nociceptors send pain signals. Their pathways are also attached to other touch modalities such as pressure and and temperature. The SC is able to preferentially forward these signals instead of that of pain so that the pain is reduced.

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125
Q

Proprioceptors

A 
Muscle spindles (stretch receptors - ruffini endings?)
Golgi tendon organs (tension)
pacinian corpuscles
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126
Q

Bottom up processing

A

Features analyzed based on sensory systems first.
Process it as it comes in
Smallest pieces of sensory info pieced together

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127
Q

Top down processing

A

Perception, objects based on expectation associations and context. Even when features degraded.
Perception driven by cognition, what one expects to perceive.

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128
Q

perceptual organization

A

using the 2 processing or processing, fillinf in the gaps using the Gestalt principles

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129
Q

Depth perception

A

can be done with 1-2 eyes

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130
Q

From

A

determined by parallel processing

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131
Q

constancy

A

we perceive certain characteristics constantly regardless on environment

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132
Q

Gestalt principles

A

proimity, similarity, good condition, subjective contours, closure

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133
Q

proximity

A

object close to one another are perceived as a unit.

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134
Q

Similarity

A

objects that are similar tend to be grouped together.

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135
Q

Good condition

A

we tend to perceive patterns as continuous rather than random stimuli. eg saw line and smooth wave line rahte rhtna both in both.

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136
Q

Subjective contours

A

we perceive contours/shapes that are not present int he stimulus

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137
Q

Law of closure

A

space enclosed by a contour tends to be perceived as a complete figure

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138
Q

Law of Pragnanz

A

things will be perceived as regular, simple and symmetric

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139
Q

Habituation

A

process of becoming used to a stimulus

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140
Q

Dishabituation

A

A second stimulus intervenes and causes a resensitization to the first stimulus

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141
Q

Associative learning

A

pairing together stimuli and responses, or behaviours and consequences

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142
Q

Classical conditioning

A

unconditioned stimulus that produces an instinctive, unconditioned response (innate reflex such as salivation to food smells, or jump to loud noise) is paired with a neural stimulus. With repetition, the neutral stim becomes a conditioned stimulus that produces a conditioned response. Also called aquisition. Weak aquisition can have spontaneous recovery, and a strong learning can have a generalization for other similar stimuli. Or, discrimination(opposite).

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143
Q

unconditioned response

A

something that occurs naturally, such as salivation to the foods smell. As soon as the stimuli becomes conditioned, as in the changing of the meat smell to the sound of the bell, the natural reaction that is salivation becomes a conditioned response because the stimulus was conditioned.

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144
Q

operant conditioning

A

behavior is changed through the use of consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of the brhavior. Form of associative learning.

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145
Q

Reinforcement

A

Increases the lifelihood of the behavior, can be positive or negaive (escape or avoidance learning)

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146
Q

Punishment

A

Reduces likelihood of the behavior. `

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147
Q

Avoidance vs escape reinforcement

A

Avoidance = studying before avoids a poor score, you learn that something in the future will cause something bad so you prepare to avoid.
Escape reinforcement = when something bad happens the behavior that you learn that helps you avoid that situation is learned. Eg. taking ibuprofen for a headache.

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148
Q

Reinforces

A

primary and secondary/conditioned. Eg, food for dogs or fish for dolphins when doing something good is primary, as it is naturally a reward. Using a clicker is a conditioned reinforcer, as using classical conditioning is necessary to pair the clicker with the behavior.

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149
Q

Fixed ratio schedules

A

Rewards given every x amount of trials, Continuous means every trial it is done correctly.

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150
Q

Variable ratio schedules

A

rewards given variably. Is the MOST effective, and most resistant to extinction. Then FR, VI, FI.

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151
Q

Fixed interval schedules

A

reinforce the first instance of behaviour after a specified time has elapsed.

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152
Q

Variable interval schedules

A

Time elapsed between behaviour and rewards changes .

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153
Q

latent learning

A

learning occurs without reward (rats pushed through maze) and then incetivized with reward the behavior is spontaneously demonstrated with it.

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154
Q

Problem solving

A

trial and error

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155
Q

preparedness

A

behaviors that coincide with natural instincts and developmental stages. (instinctive drift)

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156
Q

Observational learning

A

learning and gaining info by watching others. Uses mirror neurons. Modeling is important in a child development.

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157
Q

Encoding

A

putting new info into memory

Can be automatic processing or controlled (effortful) processing

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158
Q

Types of encoding

A

Visual, acousitc, semantic (in own lives = self reference effect)

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159
Q

How to memorize?

A

maintenance rehersal, mnemonics, method of loci, peg-word, chunking and clustering.

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160
Q

sensory memory

A

echoic - auditory
iconic - visual
stored under 1sec, stored in occipital and temporal. half-reports are easier to do because it will be recalled in the time you can hold the memory.

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161
Q

Short term memory

A

30s
7 items +/- 2
increased by clustering info
hippocampus storage

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162
Q

Working memory

A

supported by hippocampus
enables keeping a few pieces of info in conciousness and to also manipulate that info.
integration of short term emmory, attention and executive functioning. So, frontal and parietal also involved.

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163
Q

Long term memory

A

Implicit (nondeclarative or procedural) - skills and conditioned responces
Explicit (declarative) - memories that require conscious recall.

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164
Q

Explicit memory

A

Semantic - the facts that we know

Episodic - our experiences

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165
Q

retrieval/recall

A

demonstrating something is learned/retained
Recall is the ability to remember information. Three types of recall include:
Serial recall is the ability to remember various events, or a list of items in the sequence in which they occurred or, were listed.
Free recall is the ability to remember something “out of the blue”, without a cue.
Cued recall is the ability to remember something once cued or asked

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166
Q

Recognition

A

Recognize it is something you did learn

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167
Q

relearning

A

can relearn something faster than initially learning it

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168
Q

Semantic network

A

concepts linked together with similar meaning. spreading activation can occur when one node of network is activated.

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169
Q

Priming

A

Using a word of phrase close to desired semantic memory to aid in recall.

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170
Q

Context effects on memory

A

Memory aided by being in physical location where encoding took place

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171
Q

State dependedent effects

A

Being in the same emotional state or intoxication

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172
Q

Memory decay

A

Memories decay over time, decreases quickly over first 5 days then very slow decline.

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173
Q

Interference

A

New memories interfere with retrieval of other (usually similar) info.
Proactive - old info interfereing with new
Retroactive - new info causes forgetting of old info.

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174
Q

Confabulation

A

we fill in gaps of our memory and change them drastically over time. Part of false memories. Can also happen from misinformation, source monitoring error.

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175
Q

neuroplasticity

A

huge amount in kids, less in adults. the ability to form new connections between neurons.

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176
Q

Synaptic pruning

A

removing connections that are no longer used.

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177
Q

Long term potentiation

A

Changes at the synaptic cleft to reinforce conenctions, such as more neurotransmitter released, more receptor density, and more axonal ends.

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178
Q

Information processing model

A

Thinking requires sensation, encoding, storage of stimuli
Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (rather than automatic response) to be useful in decision-making.
Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new probems
Problem solving is dependent not only on the person’s cog level but also context and complexity.

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179
Q

Adaptation

A

occurs via assimilation and accomodation. Assimilation is the process of classifying new info into existing schemata, if it does not fit, accomodation occurs as schemata are adapted to fit new info.

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180
Q

Sensorimotor stage

A

focuses on manipulating the environment to meet physical needs through circular reactions (primary or secondary, repetitive motions), object permanence ends this stage (child understands that they continue to exist out of view). 0-2yrs
Child gets response from parent or soothing from primary circular.
representational thought begins afterthis stage.

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181
Q

Preoperational stage

A 
symbolic thinking (play and pretend), egocentrism (cannot think about what someone else may think/feel), and centration (focus on only 1 aspect) eg pizza example.
2-7yrs
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182
Q

Concrete operational stage

A

7-11 focuses on understanding the feelings of others and manipulating physical (conrete) objects, no abstract thought yet.

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183
Q

Formal operational stage

A

11+

ability to think logically about abstract thought. Pendulum experiment, length affects frequency.

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184
Q

Fluid intelligence

A

problem solving skills, peaks late adulthood

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185
Q

Crystallized intelligence

A

learned skills and knowledge, peaks late adulthood

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186
Q

Intelligence and age

A

declines with age. Education, frequent use of the brain and social activities help protect.

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187
Q

Problem solving techniques

A

trial and error, algorithms, deductive reasoning (deriving conclusions from general rules), inductive reasoning (deriving generalizations from evidence)

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188
Q

Heuristics

A

Simplified principles use to make decisions:
Availability heuristic (decide how likely something is based on how easy similar situations can be imagined)
Representativeness heuristic (base rate fallacy, and use prototypical and stereotypical image of category)
BUT can help analyze outcomes

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189
Q

Disconfirmation principle

A

evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that solution does not work

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190
Q

Confirmation bias

A

tendency to focus on info that fits individual’s beliefs, while rejecting opposing info. (similar to overconfidence and belief perseverance)

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191
Q

Intuition

A

Often derived from experience, act on perceptions not necesarily supported by eviednce.
Can be recognition primed decision model

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192
Q

Emotion

A

situation and experience related affects decision.

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193
Q

Multiple intelligences

A

7 types

linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal.

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194
Q

Alertness

A

awake and able to think, percieve, process, express. Cortisol higher, EEG in waking state. Maintained by circuits in prefrontal cortex, which communicate with reticular formation, neural structure on brainstem, to keep cortex awake.

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195
Q

Waves when awake

A

alpha (when you are alert but eyes closed, slightly slower, more synchronized) + beta (when you are alert and doing a task). Beta is highest frequency and more random, then alpha.
Able to perceive, process, access and express info

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196
Q

Stage 1 sleep

A

dozing off

Theta waves, higher voltages and slower frequencies.

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197
Q

Stage 2 sleep

A

theta waves, sleep spindles and K complexes

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198
Q

Stage 3/4 sleep

A

delta waves

Slow wave sleep, dreams, declarative memory, consolidation, some sleep disorders

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199
Q

REM Sleep

A

Mostly Beta waves, Appears awake psychologically, dreams, paralyzed, procedural memory consolidation, some sleep disorders.

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200
Q

circadian rhythm

A

24hr cycle, somewhat affected by biochemical molecules such as melatonin from pineal galnd, cortisol from adrenal cortex as increasing light causes increased release.

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201
Q

Dyssomnias

A

Something that makes it difficult to fall, stay asleep, or avoid sleep is insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea.
Narcolepsy: fall asleep in the day in REM, cataplexy. Sleep paralysis, hypnagogic halucinatos, sleep apnea central or obstructive.

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202
Q

Parasomnias

A

abnormal mvmts of behaviors during sleep, such as night terrors and sleep walking. Most occur in NREM sleep.

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203
Q

Depressants

A

alcohols, barbiturates, benzodiazepines

Cause sense of relaxation and reduce anxiety
Increase the activity of GABA

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204
Q

Stimulants

A

Amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy

increased arousal via different ways.
Amphetamines - increase norepi and dopamine and serotonin release, and slow uptake.
Cocaine also does this but through dif mechanism. Can cause vasoconstriction and anesthetic, als heart attacks.

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205
Q

Opiates/opioids

A

heroin, morphine, opium, pain pills

reduced sensation of pain, euphoria

Naturally forming are opiates (codeine and morphine), opioids are synthetic derivatives and include oxycodone, hydrocodone, heroin. Death by resp. suppression.

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206
Q

Hallucinogen

A

LSD, peyote, mescaline, ketamine, psilocybin-containing mushrooms

Distortions of reality and fantasy, introspection

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207
Q

Marijuana

A

Has some features of depressants, stimulants and halucinogens in very high doses.
Acts on cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, GABA receptors.

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208
Q

Drug addiction

A

related to mesolimbic pathway
Includes nucleus accumbens (NAc), ventral tagmental area (VTA), connection between called medial forebrain bundle (MFB). Usually involved in motivation and emotional resposne, accounts for positive reonforcement of substance abuse. Gambling and falling in love too.

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209
Q

Selective attention

A

focussing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring the other stimuli.

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210
Q

Divided attention

A

uses automatic processing to do two tasks at once. Usually a task requires effortful controlled processing, but if we are familiar we can do more.

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211
Q

Phonology

A

Actual sound of language, phonemes.

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212
Q

Morphology

A

Structure of the words (made of morphemes, building blocks)

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213
Q

Semantics

A

Association of meaning to a words

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214
Q

Syntax

A

How words are put together to form sentences

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215
Q

Pragmatics

A

dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge.

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216
Q

9-12 mo.

A

babbling

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217
Q

12-18mo.

A

one word per month

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218
Q

18-20mo.

A

explosion of language, combining words

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219
Q

2-3yrs

A

3+words together

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220
Q

5+yrs

A

language rules largely mastered

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221
Q

Nativist biological theory

A

innate capacity for language ,sensitive period before puberty

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222
Q

learning behaviorist theory

A

operant conditioning, aquisition by reinforcement

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223
Q

Social interactionist theory

A

biological and social process interplay

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224
Q

Whorfian hypothesis

A

language affects how we think, eg. many names for snow vs just one.

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225
Q

Broca’s area

A

inferior frontal gyrus of frontal lobe, controls motor function of speech via conenctions to motor cortex.

Damage = expressive aphasia (understand but cannot speak)

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226
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

Superior temporal gyrus of temporal lobe, language comprehension, connected to Broca’s via the arcuate fasciculus. Language comprehension and speech production connection.

Dammage = receptive aphasia (can speak but not comprehend)

Between two = conduction aphasia (can speak and comprehend but not repeat)

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227
Q

Motivation

A

purpose or driving force behind our actions

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228
Q

Intrinsic motivation

A

based on internal drive or perception

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229
Q

Extrinsic

A

based on external circumstances

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230
Q

Instinct theory

A

innate, fixed patterns of behavior in resposne to stimulu

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231
Q

Arousal theory

A

The state of being awake and reactive to stimuli; aim for potimal level of arousal for a given task (yerkes-Dodson law optimal performance is in the middle, rather than at low or high arousal)
Arousal involves brainstem, autonomic NS, endocrine system.

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232
Q

Drive reduction theory

A

individuals act to relieve internal states of tension
(eg hunger will cause us to eat, bladder etc to reduce states on uncomfortableness and keep homestasis - PRIMARY DRIVES)
Secondary drives are not related to biological processes.

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233
Q

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

A

prioritizes needs into 5 catgories; physiological, safety, security, love, belonging, self esteem, self-actualization

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234
Q

Other motivational theories

A

self-determination
incentive theory
Expectancy-value theory

235
Q

Motivation and extended drug use

A

opponent-process theory
body tries to mitigate the effects of the drug by increasing the arousal, causing opposite effects of the drugs when it is not taken. This can breed drug tolerance.

236
Q

Seven universal emotions

A

happines,s, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, anger

237
Q

3 elements of emotion

A

psyiological response - autonomic ns
Behavioral response - facial and body language
Cognitive response - subjective interpretation

238
Q

James-lange theory

A

First response - nervous system arousal

Second response - conscious emotion

239
Q

Cannon-bard theory

A

nervous system arousal and consious emotion at the same time, then action. When exposed to stimulus, sensory info is sent both to cortex and sympathetic ns by thalamus.

240
Q

Schachter-Singer theory

A

Nervous system arousal and cognitive appraisal and then conscious emotion.

241
Q

Limbic system

A

amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, fornix, septal nuclei, cerebral cortex. Plays part in emotion and motivation.

242
Q

Amygdala

A

Signals cortex about stimuli related to attention and emotions. Process environment, detect external cues, learns from enviro. in order to produce emotion. Also associated with fear, interprets facial expression.
Also implicit memory system

243
Q

Thalamus

A

Preliminary sensory processing station.

244
Q

Hypothalamus

A

synthesizes and releases a variety of neurotransmitters, Controls neurotransmitters that affect the mood and arousal - can dictate emotional states.

245
Q

Hippocampus

A

temporal lobe, creating long term memories. Storage and retrieval of memories affects emotions.
Explicit memories, episodic memories about emotions. There are implicit memories/storage of actual emotions.

246
Q

Prefrontal cortex

A

anterior frontal lobes. planning, expressing personality, making decisions. Left side associated with positive emotions, right side with negative. Dorsal with attention and cognition, ventral side with regions associated with experiencing emotion. Ventromedial prefrontal is associated in controlling emotional responses from amygdala.

247
Q

Cognitive appraisal

A

2 stages, associated with stress
Stage 1 - ecaluating environment for threat (irrelevant, benign, positive, stressful)
Stage 2 - Evaluating whether organism can cope with the stress threat. If there is potential threat for harm now or in the future, and if the organism can overcome this challenge.

248
Q

Stressors

A

Biological event, external condition, or element

Include environmenta, social, psychological, chemical and biological.

249
Q

Distress

A

Stress that causes unpleasant things.

250
Q

Eustress

A

Positive stressors, that cause a big change in one’s life.

251
Q

Stage 1 of stress: Alarm

A

Activation of sympathetic NS. Hypothalamus stimualtes pituitary to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). Stimulates adrenals to produce cortisol, maintains blood sugar needed. Hypothal also stim adrenal medulla to secrete epinephrine and dorepinephrine.

252
Q

Stage 2 of stress: Resistance

A

Continuous release or hormones allows the sympathetic NS.

253
Q

Stage 3 of stress: Exhaustion

A

Can no longer cotinue an elevated response. Illness and medical condition susceptibility increases.

254
Q

Self concept

A

Sum of ways in which we describe ourselves, who we are, used to be, and may be.

255
Q

Identities

A

Individual components related to the groups to which we belong such as religion, sexual orientation, ethnic and national affiliations.

256
Q

Self esteem

A

Our evaluation of ourselves. Generally the closer our actual self is to our ideal self and our ought self, the higher our self-esteem will be.

257
Q

Self efficacy

A

is the degree to which we see ourselves as being capable at a given skill or in a given situation. when in a state of consistent hopelessness, this cna be diminished to the point where learned helplesness results.

258
Q

Locus of control

A

Self eval that refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives. People with an internal locus of control see their successes and failures as a result of their own characteristcs and actions, while those with an external locus of control see it as outside factors having more influence on their life.

259
Q

Fixation

A

When a child in freudian’s stages is overindulged or frustrated during a stage. If persists into adulthood is called enurosis

260
Q

Oral stage

A

0-1

Put objects in mouth, biting, sucking. Dependency in adults.

261
Q

Anal stage

A

1-3 gratification is centered anally and is given whith elimination and retention of waste materials. Fixation here would lead to excessive orderliness or sloppiness.

262
Q

Phallic stage

A

3-5
Oedipal conflict for male, Electra conflict for females. Male child envies his father’s intimate relationship with mother, and fears castration at father’s hands..guilty about wanting to kill father so aligns with father and collects things.
Females may see this too, libido sublimated (latency)

263
Q

Genital stage

A

Puberty - adulthood

if previous stages successfully resolved, then enter heterosexual relationship.

264
Q

Erikson Trust vs. Mistrust

A

0-1

if resolved child will trust in life

265
Q

Erikson Autonomy vs shame and doubt

A

1-3

If autonomy wins then will live understanding child has a choice in life

266
Q

Erikson Initiative vs guilt

A

3-6
Sense of purpose, ability to initate activities. If child feels guilty due to punishment, will either show off or unduly restrict.

267
Q

Erikson Industry vs inferiority

A

6-12
Positive resolving = confident
Negative = inadequacy, inability, low self-esteem

268
Q

Erikson Identity vs role confusion

A

12-20
Phsyciological revolution
fidelity, ability to see oneself as a unique person with sustained loyalties. Unfavourable = confusion and shifting personality

269
Q

erikson Intimacy vs. Isolation

A

20-40

Love is the good outcome, if crisis not resolved then will not be able to commit.

270
Q

Erikson generativity vs stagnation

A

40-60

capable of being productive, caring, contributing. If not will become bored, self-indulgent and self-centered.

271
Q

Erikson Integrity vs. despair

A

65+

Wisdom, meaning of life, dignity. If not then bitterness, sadness, wothlessness.

272
Q

Preconventional moraity

A

stages 1: obedience
Stage 2: Self-interest
Preadolecence

273
Q

Conventional morality

A

Stage 3: Conformity

Stage 4: Law and order

274
Q

Postconventional morality

A

Stage 5: Social contract

Stage 6: Universal human ethics

275
Q

Assumption of psychoanalytic theories of personaluty

A

Assumption of unconcious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality.

276
Q

3 Freudian identities

A

id, ego, superego

277
Q

id

A

operates using pleasure principle, immediate gratification, daydreaming is wish fulfillment. All basic inborn urges to survive and reproduce.

278
Q

ego

A

operates using reality rpinciple, realizes objective reality and to postpone pleasure principle until satisfaction can be gained. Over time promotes growth of perception, memory, problem solving, thinking, reality testing.

279
Q

superego

A

the wishes of our ideal self. concious and ego ideal.

280
Q

defense mechanisms

A

relieving anxiety between id and superego

281
Q

8 main defense mechanisms

A

repression, suppression, regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement ,sublimation

282
Q

Repression

A

ego forcing undersired thoughts into the unconcious

283
Q

Suppression

A

Deliberate concious form of forgetting

284
Q

Regression

A

Reversion of an earlier mental state, with stress one may revert to old behaviors.

285
Q

Reaction formation

A

Do the opposite of the feelings. eg. celebrity crush example

286
Q

Projection

A

prject what youfeel onto others

287
Q

Rationalization

A

Justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to the self and society

288
Q

Displacement

A

Transference of undesired urge from one person or object to another. Eg. angry at boss may snap at spouse.

289
Q

Sublimation

A

TRansform socially unacceptible behaviors to socially accpetible ones.

290
Q

Collective unconscious

A

powerful system shared among all humans considered to be residue from our ancestors.

291
Q

Persona

A

Mask worn in public, Carl Jung’s archetype. Adaptive to social interactions. Anima (fem) animus (masc.)

292
Q

Shadow

A

responsible for bad and socially bad thoughts feelings and actions

293
Q

Self

A

Point of intersection between collective unconsious, personal conscious and conscious mind.

294
Q

3 dichotomies of Jung’s personality

A

introvert vs extrovert
Sensing (obtaining objective info) vs intuiting (abstractly networking inside)
Thinking (uisng logic and reason) vs feeling (using value system of personal beliefs)
Judging vs perceiving (preferring spontaneity)

295
Q

Humanistic perspective

A

focus on value of people rather than “sick” individuals.
emphasized internal feelings as they strive towards happiness and self actualization.
Maslow: hierarchy of needs (earlier cue card) eg love, food etc.
Rodgers: Unconditional positive regard

296
Q

Peak experiences

A

profound and deeply moving experiences, lasting effects

297
Q

Personal construct psychology

A

no traditional things like motivation and unconscious emotion, but rather a person whe is able to understand the variables of the environment. Not a victim.

298
Q

Carl rodgers’ client centered therapy

A

non-directive, peopel can direct their own behavior, not slaves to unconscious or faulty learning. Hlep client reflect and make choices. Unconditional positive regard.

299
Q

Big 5 personality traits

A

from trait perspective

Openness, Conscientiousness, extravesion, agreeableness, neuroticism.

300
Q

PEN model

A

psychoticism (social devience), extraversion (tolerance for social interaction), neuroticism, then turned to the big 5.

301
Q

Gordon Allport trait theorist

A

cardinal trait, central trait, secondary trait

302
Q

Behaviorist perspective

A

heavy influence of operant conditioning, personality just what we have been reinforced over time

303
Q

Social cognitive perspective on personality

A

not just how enviro influences us but how we interact with it

304
Q

Reciprocal determinism

A

we put ourselves in places that our personalities like, our personalities determine how we interact with them.

305
Q

Biological personality perspective

A

personality is determined by how genes are expressed

306
Q

Biopsychosocial approach

A

biological, psychological, social components to an individual’s disorder.

307
Q

Direct vs indirect therapy

A 
direct = treatment on individual
indirect = increase social support
308
Q

Schizophrenia

A 
psychotic disorder characterized by distortions of reality and disturbances in content and form of thought perception and behavior. 
Positive symptons(behaviors added to normal): hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thought and behavor.
Negative symtoms (absence of normal or desired behavior): disturbance of affect (emotion) and avolition.
309
Q

Delusion

A

false beliefs discordant with reality and not shared with others, IN THAT CULTURE, maintained despite strong evidence against.

310
Q

Major depressive disorder

A

contains at least one major depressive episode.

Sadness, sleep, loss of interest, loss of appetite, energy, guilt and suicidal thoughts.

311
Q

Persistent depressive disorder

A

a depressed mood either dysthymia or major depression for at least 2 yrs

312
Q

Seasonal affective disorder

A

Colloquial name for major depressive disorder with seasonal onset.

313
Q

Bipolar 1 disorder

A

at least 1 manic episode

314
Q

Bipolar 2 disorder

A

at least one hypomanic and one major depressive episode

catecholamine theory of depression - too little norepi and serotonin = depression, too much = mania

315
Q

Cyclothymica disorder

A

hypomanic and dysthymia

316
Q

Manic episode

A

DIG FAST

Distractable, insomnia, grandiosity, flight of ideas, agitation, speech, thoughtlessness

317
Q

generalized anxiety disorder

A

constant disproportionate persistent worry

318
Q

Specific phobia

A

irrational fears of specific objects

319
Q

Social anxiety disorder

A

Anxiety due to socialor performance situations

320
Q

Agoraphobia

A

Fear of places or situations where it is hard for an individual to escape

321
Q

Panic disorder

A

recurrent attacks of intense, overwhelming fear and sympathetic NS activity with no clear stimulus.

322
Q

OCD

A

Obsessions (persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses) and compulsions (repetitive tasks that relieve tension but cause significant impairment)

323
Q

Body dysmorphic disorder

A

unrealistic negative evaluation of ones appearance or a specific body part.

324
Q

PTSD

A

Experience intrusion (recurrent reliving of events, flashbacks) , avoidance (of memories, people, places), negative (inability to remember key features of event, feeling sad, distancing) adn arousal symptoms (increased startle response, irritability, anxiety, recklessness).

325
Q

Dissociative amnesia

A

inability to recall past experience. May involve dissociative fugue, a sudden change in location that can involve the assumption of a new identity.

326
Q

Dissociative identity dissorder

A

Two or more personalities that take control of behavior

Usually from severe trauma in past

327
Q

Depersonalization, derealization disorder

A

feelings of detachment from mind and body or environment

328
Q

Somatic symptom disorder

A

one somatic symptom, not necessarily related to a physical medical problem. Large devotion to it.

329
Q

conversion disorder

A

Experience trauma, begin having motor issues without underlying medical concern

330
Q

Illness anxiety disorder

A

consumed with thoughts of developing a serious medical condition.

331
Q

Cluster A Personality disorders

A

Paranoid, Schizotypal, Schizoid personality disorders.

332
Q

Paranoid

A

distrust of others and motives

333
Q

Schizotypal

A

odd or eccentric thinking, magical thinking, ideas of reference

334
Q

Schizoid

A

Pervasive patterns of detachment from social relationships, restricted emotional range,

335
Q

Cluster B personality disorders

A

Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, Narcissistic

336
Q

Antisocial

A

3x more in males, disregard for and violations of the rights of others. Many serial killers have this, lack of remorese, aggressiveness, 20-40% of prisons have this disorder.

337
Q

Borderline

A

2x more women
Instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, self-image. Identity disturbance with sexual identity, long term goals orvalues. Fear of abandonment. Self harm and suicide attempts common.

338
Q

Histrionic

A

constant attention seeking behavior. Colourful clothing, dramatic, exceptionally extroverted. May also use seductive behavior to gain attention.

339
Q

Narcissistic

A

Grandiose, self importance, preoccupied with fantasies of success, in need of constant attention, interpersonal relationship disturbances, entitlement.

340
Q

Cluster C personality disorders

A

Avoidant, dependent, obessive-compulsive

341
Q

Avoidant

A

extreme shyness and fear of rejection
intense desire for social affection and acceptance but will see oneself as socially inept and is often isolated. stay in same job/relationships despite wanting to change.

342
Q

Dependent

A

need for assurance continuously

typically rely on one person to take action and make decisions

343
Q

OCD personality disorder

A

Inflexible, inability to discard, lack of desire to change, extreme stubbornness, no sense of humor, maintenance or careful routines. Ego syntonic, lifelong disorder.

344
Q

Biological reason behind Schizophrenia

A

Hypoxemia at birth
genetics
High marijuana use as a teen
Excess dopamine in the brain

345
Q

Depressive and bipolar disorder biology

A 
high glucose metabolism in amygdala
hippocampal atrophy after long duration of the illness
Abnormally high levels of cortisol
Decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine.
Bipolar - 
Increased norepi ad serotonin
Higher risk if parents
Higher risk wiht multiple sclerosis
346
Q

Alzheimer’s biology

A

genetic component, chromosomes 1 and 14

347
Q

Parkinsons biology

A

Resting tremor, bradykinesia, masklike facies, cogwheel rigidity, shuffling gait.
DEcreased dopamine production in substantia nigra, stops basal ganglia from working properly. (critical for movememt initiation)

348
Q

Social action

A

Actions and behaviors of one individual surrounded by others.

349
Q

Social interaction

A

Actions of two or more individuals

350
Q

Social facilitation

A

People perform better on simple tasks when others are around. People naturally exchibit a performance response when people are around.

351
Q

Dodson law of Social facilitation

A

Being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which will aid in one’s ability to perform the task. if it is one that is simple and we are familiar with it. It is hinder our ability if it is a difficult task or we are unfamiliar with it.

352
Q

Deindividualization

A

Individual’s behavior can be dif when in a group of people. Eg. canucks riots. Even more so when masked or uniformed.

353
Q

Bystander effect

A

If it is a group of people no one steps up to help someone. Due to social etiquette, social cues. How well we know the individual or the group.

354
Q

Social loafing

A

Tendency of individuals to put less effort in when in a group than when doing it individually. Physical or mental.

355
Q

identity shift effect

A

threat of social rejection causes conformity, but will experience internal conflict, and will then accept the norms of the group.

356
Q

Cognitive dissonance

A

The simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions. = internal state of discomfort, manifests in fear anxiety or anger and confusion, then will try to reduce the discomfort by changing or minimizing one of these thoughts.

357
Q

Group polarization

A

Tendency towards making decisions as a groupthat are more extreme than the thoughts of the individual group members. CHoice shift occurs at the behavioral level of the group.

358
Q

Groupthink

A

Tendency to make decisions based on the ideas and solutions that arise within the group without considering outside ideas.
Indicative factors:
illusion of invulnerability, collective rationalizayion, illusion of morality, pressure of conformity, excessive sterotyping, self-censorship, illusion of unamity, mindguards.

359
Q

Assimilation

A

One culture begins to melt into another

360
Q

Multicultualism

A

Encouragement of multiple cultures within a commuity to enhance diversity

361
Q

Subculture

A

A group that distinguishes itself from the primary culture to which it belongs. Can also have counterculture.

362
Q

Socialization

A

Process of developing and spreading norms, customs and beliefs.

363
Q

Norms

A

boundaries of acceptable behavior wthin society

some called folkways

364
Q

Stigma

A

Extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences

365
Q

Deviance

A

Any violation of norms, rules, expectations within a society

366
Q

Compliance

A

Individuals change behavior based on the requests of others, techniques for compliance include foot in the door, door in the face, lowball, thats not all.

367
Q

Conformity

A

Changing beliefs or behaviors in order to fit into a group or society
Fear of rejection = normative conformity.

368
Q

Obedience

A

Change in behavior based on a commandfrom someone seen as an authority figure.

369
Q

Agents of socialization

A

School, family, peers, religion, government, media, work, ethnic background, clubs/social groups

370
Q

Differential association theory

A

hanging with a bad cround, interactions with others, can cause deviant behavior.

371
Q

Strain theory

A

deviance is a natural reaction to disconect between social goals and social structure.

372
Q

Identification vs internalization

A

Internalization = agreeing with group’s ideas, identification you do not

373
Q

Social cognition

A

focuses on the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior

374
Q

Components of attitude

A

ABC
Affective - feels towards something, emotional
Behavioral - acts with respect to something
Cognitive - the way an individual thinks about something

Expression of pos or neg feelings towards person place or thing.

375
Q

Functional attitudes theory

A

attitudes serve 4 functions,
knowledge - adds stability, helps organize thoughts, allows us to predict how people will act
ego expression - communicate and solidify our identity
adaptation - socially accepted if attitudes are acceptable
and ego defense - protect our self esteem and justidy actions

376
Q

Attitude learning theory

A

attitudes can be learned, taught, operant conditioning

377
Q

central route processing

A

part of elaboration likelihood model, these people scrutinize and analyze content of pursuasive information

378
Q

Peripheral route processing

A

focus on superficial details od persuasive info such as appearances, catchphrases and slogans.

379
Q

Social cognitive theory

A

people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others. Direct observation, personal and environmental influencers.

380
Q

Statues

A

Position in society used to classify individuals, ascribed = assigned, achieved = earned or master = primary identity

381
Q

Role

A

Set of beliefs, values, and norms that define the expectations of a certian statues

382
Q

Group

A

Two or more individuals with similar characteristics who share a sense of unity
In group, outgroup, reference group, primary group and secondary group

383
Q

Network

A

observable pattern of social relationships between individuals or groups

384
Q

Organization

A

Group with a structure and culture designed to achieve specific goals, exists outside of each individual’s membership within organization

385
Q

3 fundamental dimensions of interaction

A

SYMLOG
submission vs dominance
friendliness vs unfriendliness
Instrumentally controlled vs emotionally expressive

386
Q

Characteristic instituion

A

basic organization of society

previously kin and clans

387
Q

basic model of emotional expression

A

charles darwin, facial expression, behaviors, postures, vocal changes, physiological changes.

388
Q

Display rules

A

unspoken rules that govern the display of emotion

389
Q

Impression management

A

Maintenance of the public imagethrough various strategies

390
Q

Dramaturgical approach

A

individuals create images of themselves in the same way that actors perform a role in front of an audience

391
Q

Interpersonal attraction

A

Influenced by physical, social and psychologicla factors

392
Q

Attachment

A

An emotional bond to another person, usually refers to a child and caregiver
Secure (predictable caregiver), avoidant(no response to distressed child), ambvalent (inconcistent), disorganzed.

393
Q

cognitive neoassociation model

A

more likely to respond to others aggressively whenever we are feeling negative emotions

394
Q

Support types

A

emotiona;, esteem, material, informational, network

395
Q

Mate choice: phenotypic benefits

A

triats that make a potentil mate mroe attractive to the opposite sex

396
Q

Mate choice: sensory bias

A

Development of trait to match preexisting prefernce that exists in the population.

397
Q

Mate choice: Fisherian or Runaway selection

A

positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait that has no effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated over time. Sexually desireable so it is passed on more.

398
Q

Mate choice: Indicator traits

A

Traits that signify overall good health and well-being of an organism, icreasing its attractiveness to mates. May or may not be genetic.

399
Q

Mate choice: geentic compatibility

A

creation of mate pairs that when combined have complimentary genetics

400
Q

Evolutionary stable strategy

A

ESS, when it is adopted by a given population ina specific environment, natural selection will prevent alternative strategies from arising.

401
Q

Inclusive fitness

A

measure of an orgnaisms success in the population.

402
Q

components of social perception

A

perception, target, situation

403
Q

Halo effect

A

judgements about a specific aspect of an individual can be affected by one’s overall impression of the individual.

404
Q

Just world hypothesis

A

good things happen to good, bad things happen to bad, karma, noble will be rewarded, evil punished.

405
Q

Self-serving bias

A

Goos things happen to us because we are skilled etc, bad things happen to us because of external circumstances.

406
Q

Attribution theory

A

Infer the cause of other people’s behavior

consistency cues, consesnsus cues, distinctiveness cues

407
Q

Fundamental attribution error

A

Biased towards making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions.

408
Q

Correspondent inference theory

A

Describes attributions made by observingthe intentional (especially unnextected) behaviors performed by another person

409
Q

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A

the phenominon of a sterotype creating and expectation of a particular group hich creates conditions that lead to confirmation of this stereotype.

410
Q

Sterotype threat

A

A feeling of anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype

411
Q

Prejudice

A

Irrationally based attitude prior to actual experience

412
Q

Ethnocentrism

A

the practice of making judgements about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one’s own culture (in group vs out group_

413
Q

Stereotype types

A

Paternalistic, admiration, envious, contemptuous

414
Q

Functionalism

A

Focuses on the function an relationships of each component of society

415
Q

Conflict theory

A

Focuses on how power differentials are created and how they maintain order.

416
Q

Sympolic interactionism

A

The study of how individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures and other symbols

417
Q

Social constructionism

A

Explores how individuals and groups make decisions to agree upon a given social reality.

418
Q

Material culture

A

Physical items one associates with a given group (art clothing foods buildings)

419
Q

Symbolic culture

A

Ideas associated with a cultural group

420
Q

Demographics

A

Statistical arm of sociology

421
Q

Migration

A

Refers to the movement of people into (immigration) or out of (emigration) on a geographical location.

422
Q

Demographic transition

A

Model used to represent drops in birth and death rates as a result of industrialization

423
Q

Manifest and latent functions

A

manifest is intended, latent is other positive benefits from the intended one.

424
Q

Conflict theory

A

karl marx, how power differentials are created and ho these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order, and how it leads to dominance of a particular group.

425
Q

Social institutions

A

well established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture.

426
Q

Fundamentalism

A

Strict adherence to religious code

427
Q

Capitalist vs socialist

A

free market and laissez-faire, division of labor, specialization and efficiency.
Socialism treats alrge industries as collective shared businesses, compensation provided for the work contribution of each individual.

428
Q

Benificence

A

Physician has a responsability to act in the patient’s best interest

429
Q

Nonmalificence

A

DO no harm, avoid treatments or itnerventions in which the potential for harm outweights the potential for nenefit

430
Q

Respect for patient autonomy

A

The physician has a responsability to respect patient’ decisions and choices about their own healthcare. there are exceptions.

431
Q

Justice

A

Physician has responsability to treat similar patients with similar care and distribute healthcare resources fairly.

432
Q

List of social institutions

A

Education, family, religion, government, economy, medicine

433
Q

fastest growing age cohort

A

85+

434
Q

Sex vs gender

A

Sex is biologiclaly determines, XX or XY or something between. Gender is behaviourla cultural and psychological traits

435
Q

Intersectionality

A

Interplay between various demographic factors leading to discrimination or opression.
eg visually ethnic, they are also an immigrant.

436
Q

surplus

A

on population pyramid, when one sex has a larger populaition than the other.

437
Q

Fertility rate

A

Children per woman per lifetime

438
Q

Birth rate

A

children per 1000 people per year

439
Q

Mortality rate

A

Deaths per 1000 people per year

440
Q

Migration rate

A

immigration rate minus emigration rate

441
Q

demograpic transition

A

specific type of demographic shift in a developing country to a developed country. Has 4 stages.
Stage 1 is birth and death rates high
stage 2 is improvements in ehalthcare, nutrition, sanitation, wages and death rates drop
stage 3 is when improvements in contraceptin, womens rights, and agricultural to industrial economy and children being supported longer causes birth rates to drop
Stage 4 is when birth and death rates are low

442
Q

globalization

A

process of integrating global economy with free trade and the tapping of foreign markets

443
Q

Urbanization

A

refers to the densification of certian areas, creates a pull fo rmigration
Ghettoes occur with certain ethnic groups due to social or economic inequities.

444
Q

Class

A

category of people wish shared socioeconomic characteristics

445
Q

Power

A

the capacity to influence people through real of perceived rewards and punishments

446
Q

Social capital

A

The investment people make in society in return for economic or colelctive rewards

447
Q

Social reproduction

A

The passing on of social inequality especially in poverty to other generations

448
Q

Morbidity

A

the burden or degree of illness associated with a certain disease

449
Q

Mortality

A

the deaths casued by a given disease

450
Q

Social mobility

A

changes between classes due to economic and occupational structure allowing for different jobs and education. Can be horizontal or upwards/downwards.

451
Q

meritocracy

A

Intellectual talent and achievement allow for advancement on social ladder. However, lessening of opportunities makes this less available to all and turns into plutocracy.

452
Q

poverty absolute and relative

A

Absolute = socioeconomic condition which people do not have enough money or resources to maintain a quality of living that includes basic life necessities, eg. shelter, food, clothing, water.
Relative is relative poverty to the other people living in the country larger population.

453
Q

spatial inequality

A

social stratification across territories and their populations. helps highlight social inequalities

454
Q

gentrification

A

When a previously urban decayed area can experience urban renewal when upper and middle class populations begin to purchase and renovate neighbourhoods in deteriorated areas, replacing lower SES populations.

455
Q

Incidence

A

Number of new cases of an illness per population at risk in a given amount of time

456
Q

Prevalence

A

Number of cases of an illness overall, new or chronic, per population in total given an amount of time.

457
Q

Second sickness

A

geography and social and economic factors affect health. Exacerbation of health issues caused by social injustice.

458
Q

social capital and social cohesion

A

The less social capital (reduced network equality and equality of opportunity) the more social inequality. This decreases social cohesion.

459
Q

Feature detection model (vision)

A

Neurons become more and more specific/selective the father into the association cortex.
Retinal neurons respond to spots of light.
Neurons in primary visual cortex respond to bars of light.
Neurons in the first stages of the visual association cortex respond only to moving bars of light.
Neurons in the later stages of the visual association cortex respond to complex patterns, including hand-shaped and face-shaped patterns, which are very important stimuli to monkeys.

460
Q

adaptation (sensory)

A

decrease in response to a stimulus over time

461
Q

pSychophysics

A

Stimulus and sensation are two interdependent factors that affect perception. The analysis of the relationship between stimulus and sensation is called psychophysics.

462
Q

taste

A

detection of dissolved compounds by taste buds in papillae, five modalities: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami (savory).
Sweet, savory, and bitter tastes are triggered by the binding of molecules to G protein-coupled receptors on the cell membranes of taste buds. Saltiness and sourness are perceived when alkali metal or hydrogen ions enter taste buds, respectively.

463
Q

Phernomones

A

Chemicals given off by animals that have an effect on social, foraging, secual behavior in other members.

464
Q

Divided attention

A

the ability to attend to multiple stimuli simultaneouly and to perform multiple tasksa at the same time

465
Q

Role conflict

A

difficulty in satifying requirements or expectations among various roles.

466
Q

Role exit

A

the process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s self identity and the re-establishment of an identity in a new role that takes into account one’s ex-role.

467
Q

role strain

A

the stress or strain experienced by an individual when incompatible behavior, expectations, or obligations are associated with a single social role.

468
Q

Bureaucracy

A

Rational system for political, administration, discipline and control. Hierarchy of authority
Impersonality
Written wrules of conduct
Promotion based on achievement
Specialized division of labor
Efficiency
a system of government where non-elect government officials make the decisions

469
Q

Iron law of oligarchy

A

democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being rules by an elite group. (training, schoolin, not accessible)Ultimately places power in hands of key few leaders.

470
Q

McDonaldization

A

shift of focus to efficiency, predictability, calculatability, control in societies.

471
Q

Expressing and detecting emotion

A

body language and verbal

472
Q

Impression management

A

Impression management = self presentation = how we act in order to influence how others perceive us

473
Q

dramaturgical approach

A

dramaturgical approach = using theater performance as an analogy to impression management
front stage: when you’re being observed, you act to conform to society’s expectations
back stage: when you’re by yourself, you can be yourself

474
Q

Animal behavior

A

Bees: waggle dance to communicate location of pollen
Baring of teeth = aggression
Birds: fluff up their feathers to look bigger and more intimidating

475
Q

The role of gender in expression and detection of emotion

A

Popular belief is that girls are more emotional and they are also more sensitive to detect emotion. Research shows that society has particular expectations of how boys and girls express emotion.

476
Q

The role of culture in expresssion and detection of emotion

A 
individualistic cultures (Western): individualistic emotions predominate, such as pride and anger
collectivist cultures (Asia, Africa): emotions that promote interconnectedness predominates, such as friendliness and shame
477
Q

Applying game theory

A

game theory = decision making. Decisions have a benefit-cost ratio. Pick the choice of action that has the most benefit-cost ratio.

478
Q

The relationship between prejudice and discrimination: prejudice

A

The relationship between prejudice and discrimination: prejudice = pre-judge = you’re judging someone based on their race before even getting to know them. Discrimination = action = you are prejudiced against a certain race and because of that, rejected them from med school.

479
Q

How power, prestige, and class facilitate discrimination

A

How power, prestige, and class facilitate discrimination: power (ability to obtain goals), prestige (respect), and class (socioeconomic status) divides people into haves and have-nots. This leads to prejudice and discrimination.

480
Q

Microsociology vs macrosociology

A 
microsociology = focuses on individual face-to-face, everyday social interactions
macrosociology = focuses on populations, social systems and structure
481
Q

Exchange-rational choice

A

exchange theory: relationships form from exchange/negotiation of goods/services
rational choice theory: people make everyday decisions based on rational choice (weighing the costs, benefits, probabilities)

482
Q

feminist theory

A

study of women (objectification, stereotyping, gender roles, experience, politics) in order to understand why there is gender inequality.

483
Q

Social instituions: Education - Hidden curriculum

A

Hidden curriculum: what schools teach kids by accident. Eg: a rich-kids only school teaches kids the expectations and priviledges of being upper class.

484
Q

Social instituions: Education - Teacher expectancy

A

a teacher’s expectancy of a kid influences how that kid will perform. Eg: a teacher expects less from a minority student, lowers the bar for the kid, subsequently the kid did not develop his full potential.

485
Q

Social institutions: Education - Educational segregation and stratification

A

poor areas have poor schools which have lower quality education

486
Q

Diversity in family forms

A

eg. Single parents, homosexual parents, step parents, grandparents, etc.

487
Q

Forms of kinship

A

primary, secondary (grandparents and aunt/uncle), tertiary (my cousins)

488
Q

marriage and divorce

A

marriage from a healthcare/legal standpoint makes your spouse your next-of-kin. If anything happens to you and you can no longer make decisions, your spouse have the legal authority to do so on your behalf.

489
Q

religiosity

A

religiousness = how religious you are

490
Q

Church

A

stabilizing, in alignment with government, mainstream religious teaching

491
Q

Sect

A

splits off from the church to promote a more traditional/orthodox version of the religion

492
Q

cult

A

splits off from the church to promote a novel version of the religion. Usually led be charismatic leaders.

493
Q

Modernization

A

adoption of technology by society. Causes secularization.

494
Q

Secularization

A

religion loses influence on people

495
Q

Power and authority

A

the capacity to influence people through the real or threatened use of reqards and punishments; often based on unequeal distribution of vlaued resources

496
Q

capitalism

A

Capitalism: private, profit-orientated

497
Q

socialism

A

Socialism: state-owned, distribution of resources

498
Q

mixed economy

A

Mixed-economy: mixture of capitalism and socialism

499
Q

medicalization

A

human conditions becoming disease entities that are then studied and treated under medicine

500
Q

illness experience

A

experiencing symptom -> assuming sick role -> seeking care -> establish doctor-patient relationship -> recovery

501
Q

The sick role

A

Rights: it’s not your fault that you’re sick, and while you’re sick, you’re exempt from work (your normal social role)
Obligations: You should try to get well. You should see a doctor and cooperate/comply
Issues with the sick role: pushing a sick role on someone who doesn’t think so (homosexuality used to be considered a disease entity. Some patients wants to avoid the sick role due to stigmatization/HIV or because they want to continue to work). Sometimes we blame people it’s their fault for being sick (obesity and lifestyle).

502
Q

Elements of culture

A

(e.g., beliefs, language, rituals, symbols, values): these elements make up culture, which is passed down to the next generation.

503
Q

culture lag

A

material culture (technology) changes faster than symbolic (beliefs, values). Eg: we can clone humans, but we feel it’s unethical to do so.

504
Q

assimilation

A

Assimilation = integrating into a different culture.

505
Q

mass media

A

media that targets the masses. Often exaggerated and modified for effect. Has a heavy influence on pop culture.

pop pulture = mainstream culture

506
Q

Culture as a product of evolution

A

people with culture have stronger attachments and communicate better, thus more fit.

507
Q

culture as a driver of evolution

A

modern technology means we’re no longer subject to the same selection pressures as animals. Eg: we have less body hair, we have smaller jaws, smaller muscle mass than our ancesterso

508
Q

transmission of culture

A

= vertical = passing culture down from generation to generation

509
Q

diffusion of cultures

A

= horizontal = spreading culture to other places. Eg: westernization of the world.

510
Q

SOcial significance of aging

A

elderly = needs social security and medicare = taken care of by young workforce. Baby boomers = large aging population.

511
Q

Age and cognition

A

Declines with age, fluid and crystalized, time based prospective memory declines with age, keep doing daily activities.

512
Q

Race vs ethnicity

A

race = your outward appearance. Ethnicity = the culture you identify with.

513
Q

social construction of race

A

we classify people into races based on outward appearance.

514
Q

racial formation

A

we construct/form races to justify treating people differently. Eg: slavery, genocide, who to be friends with, etc.

515
Q

Intersections of race and ethnicity

A

race and ethnicity are different things that can overlap or be different. Eg: being Caucasian can mean you are Greek, French, Irish, etc. If you are Black, but you are born in France and lived your whole life there, you can also call yourself French.

516
Q

patterns of immigration

A

immigration is increasing, most of which is from Mexico, Caribbean, and India

517
Q

malthusian theory

A

population grows exponentially and will eventually outgrow its resources. War, famine, disease bring the population back down to a sustainable level (positive checks). Population control (preventive checks) such as later marriage also keeps the population from outgrowing its resources.

518
Q

Demographic transition

A

changes in population makeup, including birth and death rates (demographic transition)

519
Q

Population pyramids

A

bottom heavy = population growth. Top heavy = population decline. Side skew = gender imbalance.

520
Q

Push and pull of migration

A 
Push = why you want to leave this place = lack of jobs, natural disasters, descrimination, etc
Pull = why you want to go to the other place = better paying jobs, promise of a better life, etc
521
Q

organization of social mvmts

A 
Proactive = promote change
Reactive = resist change
522
Q

Perspectives on globalization

A

proponents: economic growth and development
criticisms: colonialism, inequality, cultural assimilation

523
Q

social changes in globalization

A

cultural assimilation, colonialism, inequality can cause civil unrest and terrorism.

524
Q

residential segregation

A

poor neightborhoods (bad schools, high crime rate, poor healthcare, cheap housing) vs rich neighborhoods (good schools, low crime rate, good healthcare, expensive housing). Relocation is difficult both ways (poor people can’t afford to relocate, rich people don’t want to relocate), so segregation occurs

525
Q

class consciousnes sand false consciousness

A

class consciousness = awareness of your class and the interests of your class as a whole. False consciousness = awareness of yourself and your interests only. The communist revolution is based on promoting class consciousness of the lower class

526
Q

CUltural capital and social capital

A

Cultural capital: knowledge, skills, education.
Social capital: connections.
Economic capital: money and property.

527
Q

social reproduction

A

transmission of social inequalities from one generation to the next. Eg: poor families give birth to kids in poor neighborhoods, with less access to education and opportunities, and they grow up to be poor also.

528
Q

socioeconomic gradient in health

A

inequalities in healthcare exists. The lower socioeconomic class has worse health than the upper class.

529
Q

global inequalities

A

developed vs underdeveloped nations. These inequalities are reinforced by unfair trade practices in globalization.

530
Q

intergenerational vs intragenerational mobility

A

intergenerational = changes from parent to kid. Intragenerational = changes within your life time.

531
Q

meritocracy

A

advancing the socioeconomic ladder based on merit and achievement

532
Q

social exclusion, seggrgation

A

excluding/blocking off someone or a group of people from society’s opportunities, rights and resources that other groups have access to.

533
Q

Health disparities

A

Class: lower class have poorer health in general.
Gender: women live longer, but suffer more non-life-threatening illnesses (arthritis, fibromyalgia, depression). Men die younger, from accidents and serious illnesses (heart disease, cancer, COPD, diabetes). Men are also less likely to seek help and are less compliant.
Race
Whites: cystic fibrosis, skin cancer
Blacks: sickle cell disease, sarcoidosis. Also more likely to have diabetes, stroke. They also develop hypertension earlier.
Asians: stomach cancer (nitrates in food preservatives)

534
Q

Healthcare disparities

A

class: lower class have poorer access to healthcare and are more likely to be uninsured
gender: women are more likely to seek help and see the doctor on a regular basis. LGBT are less likely to seek care due to fear of discrimination.
race: blacks and Hispanics are less access to healthcare and have poorer healthcare outcomes.

535
Q

Information processin gmodel

A

describes how our brains work as machines that pay attention to and perceive our surroundings. Once this information has been processed it is stored in our brains so that it can be drawn upon later.

536
Q

cognitive development

A

the development of one’s ability to understand concepts and think reasonably for oneself.

537
Q

Cognitive changes in late adulthood

A

over 60 = delayed reaction times and slowed speech because their information-processing capabilities have become slower.
difficult for us to recall, but our ability to recognize is still mostly intact.
time-based tasks become difficult. For example, it may be difficult for someone over the age of 60 to follow a weekly routine

538
Q

Culture in cognitive development

A

ays a platform for social relationships to form, as well as serves as an environment to observe others’ social interactions.
The things we learn from what we observe in our environment shapes how we behave and think. Some people think in images, and some think in words.
Studies have found that different languages lead to different ways of thinking and reasoning.

539
Q

biological factors that affect cognition

A 
Processes that occur in the frontal lobe include organization and planning. The hippocampus, is responsible for forming new memories.
The amygdala (and the rest of the limbic system) is also involved with cognition. Its job is to arouse the necessary emotions, causing alertness and motivation necessary to complete tasks.
540
Q

Types of problem solving

A

heuristics ( the process of using cognitive shortcuts, formed by someone’s previous experiences. A “rule of thumb” is an example of a heuristic.)
trial and error, algorithms

541
Q

Barriers to effective problem solving

A

confirmation biases, fixations

542
Q

availability heuristic

A

tendency to believe that something is more common or more likely to happen just because it is more readily obtainable in our memory. For example, if everyone in your household has the flu, and someone at work coughs, you may jump to the conclusion that they, too, have the flu.

543
Q

representative heuristic

A

we have a tendency to make judgments based on the probability of something happening based on our typical idea of a particular event. For example, we believe we will receive a cake rather than a salad when it is our birthday. This is because cakes are typically more representative of a birthday than a salad.

544
Q

variations in intellectual ability

A

Intelligence is hard to measure; many of the tests administered to quantify intelligence have built-in bias, and have unavoidable confounding factors. For example, sometimes racial groups score differently from each other not because of their race, but because of different incomes and availability to different qualities of education.
IQ Scores: The average score on an intelligence test is 100. The lowest end of the spectrum falls below 70 mark. At the high of the scale, there are people who score higher than 130.

545
Q

8 types of intelligence

A

Nature Intelligence- the ability to understand the biological aspects of the world.
Linguistic Intelligence- the ability to write, read, and speak.
Intrapersonal Intelligence- the ability to have insight; to understand one’s inner self.
Interpersonal Intelligence- the ability to understand and associate with other people.
Mathematical Intelligence- the ability to perform in numbers (math).
Spatial Intelligence- the ability to see and process the world (space) that surrounds you.
Musical Intelligence- the ability to compose and/or perform musically.
Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence- the ability to perform athletically (dance, sports, manual labor, etc.).

546
Q

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

A

Experiential intelligence- (also known as creative intelligence) the ability to familiarize oneself with new circumstances and form new concepts. For example: If you move to a foreign country and you are able to learn the new language, you are exhibiting experiential intelligence.
Componential intelligence- (also known as analytical intelligence) the traditional idea of intelligence. Includes ability to logically reason and think abstractly. Also includes the ability to communicate and think mathematically. This type of intelligence can be evaluated by standard tests of intelligence (e.g. IQ tests).
Contextual intelligence- (also known as practical intelligence, or “street smarts”) this is the ability to apply one’s knowledge base to the world around them. Example: You have learned that UV rays from the sun can give you skin cancer, so when the sunlight becomes intense, you move to sit in the shade.

547
Q

Primary mental abilities

A 
Reasoning
Numerical ability
Associative Memory
Spatial visualization
Word fluency
Perceptual speed
Verbal comprehension
548
Q

dreaming

A

: occurs during REM. If one does not sleep well enough to reach the REM stage, the individual will spend more time in REM the next time they sleep. This compensation is known as REM rebound
According to Sigmund Freud called the “story” of our dreams (called manifest content) are symbolic of our unconscious ideas, called latent content
The Activation-Synthesis Theory states that physiological processes happening in the brain create dreams

549
Q

Processes of encoding information

A

The hippocampus (located in the temporal lobe of the brain) receives sensory information from the cortex. There is also a pathway that leads back (from the hippocampus) to different areas of the primary cortex. This neural circuit is responsible for recording and linking associations with the memories we form.
The serial position effect explains that we are least likely to remember the information in the middle of a list, and most likely to remember what was listed first and last.
The primacy effect is a phenomenon in which we are more likely to recall information that was listed in the beginning (as opposed to information mentioned in the middle of a list.
The recency effect explains that we are also more likely to recall information that was listed last

550
Q

4 types of memory encoding

A

Semantic encoding involves encoding sensory information with specific relevance to the person (a phrase, word, image, event, etc.) that can be applied to a particular situation. This type of coding does not use sensory input such as sound, taste etc.
Acoustic encoding involves encoding sounds (language, music, other sounds). We use our echoic memory to recall the auditory information that has been stored.
Tactile encoding involves the use of our tactile senses. It is how we recall how something feels (physically). For example, we can remember silk feels smooth.
Visual encoding involves the processing and encoding of images and other visual information (e.g. pictures, someone’s face, a specific place). Before becoming a long-term memory, visual information is stored within our iconic memory (a type of memory specific to the storage of visual input).

551
Q

Aging and memory

A

Short-term memory begins, on average, to decline after the age of sixty. Some think this may occur because of a loss of neurons (due to aging). As we become older, we are much more likely to struggle with free recall (recalling information “out of the blue”) than with recognition.
Information that is important/meaningful, and information regarding a skill (e.g. how to ride a bike) is less likely to be forgotten. Information that has little importance to someone is much more likely to be forgotten.

552
Q

Schema

A

A schema is the overall framework of how we remember something (structure and components of the situation, details, etc.). Schemas can skew information. An example of a schema skewing information: being asked to recall the doctor’s examining room that you saw as a child. You may remember certain things that were there, but due to your idea of what a doctor’s examining room should look like, you may remember things such as tongue depressors, cotton balls, alcohol, etc., regardless of whether or not they were actually there.

553
Q

Source monitoring

A

Memories are usually more accurate if the person can remember the source of their information. When the source of information is forgotten, this mistake is known as a source monitoring error

554
Q

Compensatory masquerade - neural plasticity

A

the use of a new cognitive process to carry out a task that previously depended on a cognitive process that used to be impaired. It is the process of the brain finding another way to accomplish something when the first (typical) method is ineffective.

555
Q

cross modal reassignment - neural plasticity

A

the brain can adapt through the introduction of new inputs to an area of the brain that was previously lacking its main inputs.

556
Q

map expansion

A

information processing of a particular region of the brain can be heightened by frequent exposure to stimulus/ new information. For example, the area of the brain that deals with mathematics (inferior temporal gyrus) would become heightened after taking a calculus class.

557
Q

Homologous area adaption - neural plasticity

A

if the brain suffers damage to particular regions, sometimes it can shift the responsibilities of that area of the brain to another, undamaged area. This adaption is most active during the early stages of development.

558
Q

memory and learning

A

We are able to form reliable memories after the age of 3. Memories of events that happened before the age of 3 are unreliable, and are susceptible to a phenomenon known as infantile amnesia.
As we age, our brain does not grow larger, but increases its interconnectivity between neurons. These connections between neurons are called synapses. These synapses are strengthened with use, especially when they are associated with strong emotions.
Neural nets consist of neurons that are activated at the same time in response to a particular association. Neural nets are activation patterns that consist of synapses that represent groups of information stored in our memory.

559
Q

language theory

A

Some believe that we are born with an innate biological platform for language development (Nativist). Others believe that linguistic development is dependent on usage and experience (Interactionist).
Learned by 5, Universal Grammar,

560
Q

language and cognition

A

It is thought that language can help broaden our understanding of the world. It enables us to share our thoughts and ideas. Speaking with one another can also expose us to new vocabulary and grammatical structure. Confounding factors include: environment, genetics, and culture.

561
Q

Appraisal

A

this term refers to the way someone interprets any given event. This interpretation will determine how someone decides to feel, and later act.

562
Q

Different stressors

A

cataclysmic (eg cannot predict, earthquake), personal (job, marriage, death), daily(traffic, bills)

563
Q

Physiological effects

A

A series of events are initiated by the hypothalamus occurs during stressful situations. It releases hormones that stimulate the pituitary glands, which then communicate with the adrenal glands to release cortisol.
Cortisol is a hormone that causes the body to use fat as a source of energy (instead of glucose, as it usually would).
Excessive exposure to high levels of cortisol can be detrimental to the immune system, as it prevents the activity of white blood cells.

564
Q

neuronal communications and its influence on behavior

A

Dopaminergic neurons are stimulated by dopamine (a neurotransmitter that affects mood -> affects behavior)
Defective neurons can cause Parkinson’s disease (impaired motor movements, loss of feeling) and Alzheimer’s disease (changes in mood, impaired movement and memory)

565
Q

genes, temperment and heredity

A

Part of our personality encoded for in our genes, the rest is influenced by environmental factors.
Our personality is largely defined by our temperament, or our nature (how “moody” we are).
We are likely to think and behave like our parents, due to the inheritable factors of personality.

566
Q

Neurocognitive dream theory

A

neurocognitive theory

dreams are a meaningful product of our cognitive capacities, which shape what we dream about

567
Q

trait vs state

A

trait = stable ad long term part of personality
state = situationally dependent, short term personality characteristics
This may explain behavior in certain situations

568
Q

disorders - biomedical approach

A

Biomedical approach- this approach looks at psychological disorders from a biological perspective, including factors such as genetics, brain structure, and brain chemistry.

569
Q

disorders - biopsychosocial approach

A

this approach looks at psychological disorders from a sociological/cultural perspective including factors such as education, socioeconomic standards, and expectations held by peers.

570
Q

Stem cells and CNS

A

brain cells (neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes) can be regenerated from neural stem cells. Regeneration of neural cells within the central nervous system can repair damage caused by degenerative diseases (e.g. Parkinson’s Disease, Lou Gehrig’s Disease).

571
Q

social control

A

ways to prevent anarchy
informal control: unenforced social norms. Eg. You don’t tell jokes at a funeral.
formal control: stuff you can be prosecuted for. Such as vandalism.

572
Q

sanctions

A

punishment for not conforming to social norms. Eg. Shame and ridicule of the individual.

573
Q

anomie

A

the lack or undermining of social norms. Eg. Individualism, social inequity, isolation.

574
Q

folkways, mores and taboos

A

norms from the least severe to most severe

575
Q

Processes of shaping and extinction

A

reinforcement shapes a behavior. When the reinforcement no longer happens, the behavior relapses, it’s called extinction.

576
Q

cognitive processes in associative learning

A

Latent learning: passively soaking up knowledge
Problem solving: step back, think, and come up with a solution
Instincts: mother goose will protect her eggs. If you try to teach a goose to abandon eggs, it won’t work because it goes against their instinct, this process is called instinctive drift.

577
Q

Vicarious emotions and the brain

A

vicarious emotion = feeling what other feel. Empathy = feeling an emotion that you share. Vicarious = feeling an emotion even if you don’t share it. Eg: seeing someone skateboard, you’re like wow that must be so fun, even though you never skateboarded before

578
Q

Observational learning and behavior

A

Applications of observational learning to explain individual behavior: loving family makes someone a loving person. Abusive family makes someone an abusive person.

579
Q

Elaboration likelihood model

A

two extremes on how individuals respond to persuasion, most are somewhere in the middle (peripheral and cenral procesing models)

580
Q

factors that affect attitude change

A

Changes in your behavior -> observed by others -> Changes attitude
Message -> influences target -> affects attitude
Social = environment -> influences individual attitudes

581
Q

Influence of individuals on formation of self identoty

A

Imitation: we imitate role models, peers, especially those similar to us and those we identify with
Looking-glass self: you’re friends see you as funny. Your boss sees you as lazy. Your ex sees you as dumb. Your looking-glass self is a combination of all of these different perceived versions of you by other people.
Role-taking: pretending to be or experimenting with other identities. Eg: play house, play doctor, etc.

582
Q

The role of cognition in predjudice

A

cognitive level prejudce = prejudice based on rational thinking. Eg: racial profiling - if you observe that a certain race commits crimes more often, you will treat everyone of that race with prejudice.

583
Q

Ethnocentrism vs cultural relativism

A

Ethnocentrism = placing yourself at the center of the universe = judging others based on the assumption that your culture is superior / most correct
Cultural relativism = no one’s at the center, everything’s relative = perceiving differences in others with an understanding that no one’s more superior or inferior

Psych and Soc term content (1 decks)

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