MCAT Kaplan Flashcards
1
Q
Coding Strand
A
The strand of DNA that is not used as a template during transcription.
AKA the sense strand
2
Q
Glycosidic Linkage
A
The bond between the anomeric carbon of a sugar and another molecule.
3
Q
Cooperativity
A
The interaction between subunits of a multisubunit protein in which binding of substrate to one subunit increases the affinity of other subunits for the substrate; unbinding of substrate from one subunit decreases the affinity of other subunits for the substrate.
4
Q
Transcription Factors
A
Proteins that help RNA polymerase II locate and bind to the promoter region of DNA.
5
Q
Leading Strand
The template stand is read in the 3’ to 5’ direction.
A
The strand of DNA that is continuously synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction.
6
Q
Aggression
A
A behaviour with the interaction to cause harm or increase relative social dominance; can be physical or verbal.
7
Q
Misinformation Effect
A
A phenomenon in which memories are altered by misleading information provided at the point of encoding or recall.
8
Q
Implicit Memory
A
Memory that does not require conscious recall; consists of skills and conditioned behaviours.
9
Q
Reciprocal Determinism
A
In the social cognitive perspective, the notion that thoughts, feelings, behaviours, and environment interact to determine behaviour in a given situation.
10
Q
Mental Set
A
A tendency to repeat solutions that have yielded positive results at some time in the past.
11
Q
Forebrain
A
A portion of the brain that is associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioural processes such as emotion and memory.
12
Q
Somatosensation
A
The sense of “touch”, which contains multiple modalities; pressure, vibration, pain and temperature.
13
Q
Median
A
The simplest division of a set of values; the middle value that divides the values into the upper and lower halves.
14
Q
Second Messenger
A
A small molecule that transduces a hormonal signal from the exterior of the cell to the interior. Usually released when a peptide hormone binds to its receptor.
cAMP is a common example.
15
Q
Veins
A
Vessels that carry blood toward the heart. These vessels are thin-walled and have valves to prevent backflow.
16
Q
Conjugation
A
The temporary joining of two organisms via a tube called a pilus, through which genetic material is exchanged.
A form of sexual reproduction used by bacteria.
17
Q
Foramen Ovale
A
A shunt that connects the right atrium to the left atrium in order to bypass the fetal lung.
18
Q
Surfactant
A
A liquid substance produced by the lung that reduces surface tension in the alveoli.
This liquid prevents lung collapse and decreases the effort needed to expand the lungs (inhale).
19
Q
Rh Factor
Introduction of Rh factor into the blood of a person who is Rh- may result in a fatal hemolysis reaction.
A
A surface protein expressed on red blood cells that can induce an immune response.
20
Q
Halogens
A
Elements found in Group VIIA (Group 17) of the periodic table.
21
Q
Free Radical
A
An atom or molecule that has an unpaired electron in its outermost shell.
22
Q
Mass
A
A scalar quantity used as a measure of an object’s inertia.
23
Q
Configurational Isomers
A
Isomers that can only interconvert by breaking bonds.
Includes enantiomers, diastereomers, and cis-trans isomers.
24
Q
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy
A
A technique that measures the alignment of magetic moments from certain molecular nuclei with an external magnetic field.
Can be used to determine the connectivity and functional groups in a molecule.
25
Equatorial
Describes groups on a cyclic molecule that are in the place of the molecule.
26
Collision Theory of Chemical Kinetics
Theory stating that the rate of a reaction is directly proportional to the number of collisions that take place between reactants per second.
27
VSEPR Theory
The acronym for **V**alence **S**hell **E**lectron **P**air **R**epulsion theory, which states that the three-dimensional molecular geometry about some central atom is determined by the electronic repulsions between its bonding and nonbonding electron pairs.
28
pH
## Footnote
pH = -log [H+]
Scaled value used to measure the acidic strength of a solution, calculated by taking the negative logarithm of the proton concentration in a solution.
29
Radiation
Form of heat transfer where the energy is carried by electromagnetic waves.
## Footnote
This is the only form of heat transfer that can be carried out in a vacuum.
30
Gravitational Potential Energy
The energy of an object due to its height above a given datum, calculated by the equation *U = mgh* and given in the SI units of joules (J).
31
Accomodation
Process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass new information.
32
Acquisition
In classical conditioning, the process of taking advantage of reflexive responses to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus.
33
Adaptation
## Footnote
In perception
A decrease in stimulus perception after a long duration of exposure.
34
Adaptation
## Footnote
In learning
The process by which new information is processed; consists of assimilation and accommodation.
35
Adaptive Value
The extent to which a trait benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species.
36
Alertness
State of consciousness in which one is aware, able to think, and able to respond to the environmental.
## Footnote
Nearly synonymous with arousal.
37
Aligning Actions
An impression management strategy in which one makes questionable behaviour acceptable through excuses.
38
Altruism
A form of helping behaviour in which the intent is to benefit someone else at a cost to oneself.
39
Amygdala
A portion of the limbic system that is important for memory and emotion, especially fear.
40
*Anomie*
## Footnote
Anomic conditions erode social solidarity by means of excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation.
A state of normlessness.
41
Anxiety Disorders
Disorders that involve worry, unease, fear, and apprehension about future uncertainties based on real or imagined events that can impair physical and psychological health.
42
Appraisal Model
A similar theory to the basic model, accepting that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced; accepts that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression.
43
Learning (Behaviourist) Theory
A theory that attitudes are developed through forms of learning (direct contact, direct interaction, direct instruction, and conditioning).
44
Maintenance Rehearsal
Repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory or store it.
45
Managing Appearances
An impression management strategy in which one uses props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations with others to create a positive image.
46
Manic Episode
A period of at least one week with prominent and persistent elevated or expansive mood and at least two other manic symptoms.
47
Master Status
A status with which a person is most identified.
48
Material Culture
The physical items one associates with a given cultural group.
49
Medulla Oblongata
A portion of the brainstem that regulates vital functions, including breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
50
Melatonin
A serotonin derivative secreted by the pineal gland that is associated with sleepiness.
51
Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) Sleep
Stages 1 through 4 of sleep; contains ever-slowing brain waves as one gets deeper into sleep.
52
Norms
Societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behaviour.
53
Obedience
The changing of behaviour of an individual based on a command from someone seen as an authority figure.
54
Object Permanence
Knowledge that an object does not cease to exist even when the object cannot be seen; a milestone in cognitive development.
55
Observational Learning
A form of learning in which behaviour is modified as a result of watching others.
56
Operant Conditioning
A form of associative learning in which the frequency of a behaviour is modified using reinforcement or punishment.
57
Circular Reaction
A repetitive action that achieves a desired respose; seen during Piaget's sensorimotor stage.
58
Classical Conditioning
A form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated wth an unconditioned stimulus such that the neutral stimulus alone produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulus; the neutral stimulus thus becomes a conditioned stimulus.
59
Cognitive Dissonance
The simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions.
60
Collective Unconscious
In Jungian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious mind that is shared among all humans and is a result of our common ancestry.
61
Cultural Relativism
The recognition that social groups and cultures must be studied on their own terms to be understood.
62
Deductive Reasoning
A form of cognition that starts with general information and narrows down that information to create a conclusion.
63
Defense Mechanism
A technique used by the ego that denies, falsifies, or distorts reality in order to resolve anxiety caused by undesirable urges of the id and superego.
64
Deindividuation
The idea that people will lose a sense of self-awareness and can act dramatically differently based on the influence of a group.
65
Delusions
Fixed, false beliefs that are discordant with reality and not shared by one's culture, but are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary.
66
Demographic Transition
A transition from high birth and mortality rates to lower birth and mortality rates, seen as a country develops from a preindustrial to an industrialized economic system.
67
Demographics
The statistical arm of sociology, which attempts to characterize and explain populations by quantitative analysis.
68
Foraging
The act of searching for and exploiting food resources.
69
Depressive Episode
A period of at least two weeks in which there is a prominent and persistent depressed mood or lack of interest and at least four other depressive symptoms.
70
Deviance
The violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society.
71
*Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders* (DSM)
The guide by which most psychological disorders are characterized, described, and diagnosed. Currently in its 5th edition (DSM-5, published May 2013)
72
Discrimination
## Footnote
In sociology
When individuals of a particular group are treated differently from others based on their group.
73
Discrimination
## Footnote
In classical conditioning.
The process by which two similar but distinct conditioned stimuli produce different responses
74
Dishabituation
A sudden increase in response to a stimulus, usually due to a change in the stimulus or the addition of another stimulus.
## Footnote
Sometimes called resensitization.
75
Disconfirmation Principle
Idea that states that if evidence obtained during testing does not confirm a hypothesis, then the hypothesis is discarded or revised.
76
Diencephalon
A portion of the embryonic forebrain that becomes the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland.
77
Dissociative Disorders
Disorders that involve a perceived separation from identity or the environment.
78
Divided Attention
The ability to attend to multiple stimuli simultaneously and to perform multiple tasks at the same time.
79
Dramaturgical Approach
Impression management theory that represents the world as a stage and individuals as actors performing to an audience.
80
Drive Reduction Theory
A theory that explains motivation as being based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable internal states.
81
Ego
In Freudian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious mind that mediates the urges of the id and the superego.
## Footnote
Operates under the reality principle.
82
Egocentrism
Self-centered view of the world in which one is not necessarily able to understand the experience of another person.
## Footnote
Seen in Piaget's preoperational stage.
83
Elaboration Likelihood Model
A theory in which attitudes are formed and changed different routes of informational processing based on the degree of deep thought given to persuasive information.
84
Elaborative Rehearsal
The association of information in short-term memory to information already stored in long-term memory; aids in long-term storage.
85
Encoding
The process of receiving information and preparing it for storage; can be automatic or effortful.
86
Errors of Growth
Misuse of grammar characterized by universal application of a rule, regardless of exceptions; seen in children during language development.
87
Escape
A form of negative reinforcement in which one reduces the unpleasantness of something that already exists.
88
Ethnocentrism
The practice of making judgments about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture.
89
Explicit Memory
Memory that requires conscious recall, divided into facts (semantic memory) and experiences (episodic memory).
## Footnote
Aka declarative memory.
90
Extinction
In classical conditioning, the decrease in response resulting from repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the presence of the unconditioned stimulus.
91
Front Stage
In the dramaturgical approach, the setting where players are in front of an audience and perform roles that are in keeping with the image they hope to project about themselves.
92
Frontal Lobe
A portion of the cerebral cortex that controls motor processing, executive function, and the integration of cognitive and behavioural processes.
93
Functional Fixedness
The inability to identify uses for an object beyond its usual purpose.
94
Fundamental Attribution Error
The general bias toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions when analzying another person's behaviour.
95
Game Theory
A model that explains social interaction and decision-making as a game, including strategies, incentives, and punishments.
96
*Gemeinschaft* and *Gesellschaft*
## Footnote
*Gemeinschaft* = communities
*Gesellschaft* = society
Theory that distinguishes between two major types of groups: communities, which share beliefs, ancestry, or geography; and society, which work together toward a common goal.
97
Generalization
In classical conditioning, the process by which two distinct but ismilar stimuli come to produce the same response.
98
Gestalt Principles
Ways for the brain to infer missing parts of an image when the image is incomplete.
99
Group Polarization
The tendency toward decisions that are more extreme than the individual thoughts of the group members.
100
Groupthink
The tendency for gorups to make decisions based on ideas and solutions that arise wihtin the group without considering outside ideas and ethics; based on pressure to conform and remain loyal to the group.
101
Habituation
A decrease in response caused by repeated exposure to a stimulus.
102
Hallucinations
Perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality; drugs that cause hallucinations, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) or psilocybin-containing mushrooms, are termed hallucinogens.
103
Halo Effect
A cognitive bias in which judgments of an individual's character can be affected by the overall impression of the individual.
104
Heuristic
A rule of thumb or shortcut that is used to make decisions.
105
Hindbrain
A portion of the brain that controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes.
106
Hippocampus
A portion of the limbic system that is important for memory and learning.
107
Hypnosis
An altered state of consciousness in which a person appears to be awake but is, in fact, in a highly suggestible state in which another person or event may trigger actions by the person.
108
Hypothalamus
A portion of the forebrain that controls homeostatic and endocrine functions by controlling the release of pituitary hormones.
109
Id
In Freudian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious resulting from basic, instinctual urges for sexuality and survival; operates under the pleasure principle and seeks instant gratification.
110
Identity
A part of an individual's self-concept based on the groups to which that peson belongs and his or her relationships to others.
111
Opponent-Process Theory
A theory that states that the body will adapt to counteract repeated exposure to stimuli, such as seeing afterimages or ramping up the sympathetic nervous system in response to a depressant.
112
Parallel Processing
The ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding multiple aspects of a stimulus, such as colour, shape, and motion.
113
Parietal Lobe
A portion of the cerebal cortex that controls somatosensory and spatial processing.
114
Personality Disorders
Disorders that involve patterns of behaviour that are inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress or impaired function in at least two of. the following: cognition, emotion, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control.
115
Pineal Gland
A brain structure located near the thalamus that secretes melatonin.
116
Pons
A portion of the brainstem that relays information between the cortex and medulla, regulates sleep, and carries some motor and sensory information from the head and neck.
117
Poverty
## Footnote
In the United States, the poverty line is determined by the government's calculation of the minimum income requirements for families to acquire the minimum necessities of life.
A socioeconomic condition of low resource availability.
118
Prejudice
An irrationally based positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, formed prior to actual experience.
119
Prevalence
The number of cases of a disease per population in a given period of time; usually cases per 1000 people per year.
120
Primacy Effect
The phenomenon of first impressions of a person being more important than subsequent impressions.
121
Priming
A retrieval cue by which recall is aided by a word or phrase that is semantically related to the desired memory.
122
Projection
A defense mechanism by which individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others.
123
Projection Area
A portion of the cerebral cortex that analyzes sensory input.
124
Proprioception
The ability to tell where one's body is in space.
125
Reaction Formation
A defense mechanism by which individuals supress urges by unconsiously converting them into their exact opposites.
126
Consciousness
Awareness of oneself; can be used to describe varying levels of awareness that occur with wafefulness, sleep, dreaming, and drug-induced states.
127
Conformity
The changing of beliefs or behaviours in order to fit into a group or society.
128
Conflict Theory
A theoretical framework that emphasizes the role of power differentials in producing social order.
129
Confirmation Bias
A cognitive bias in which one focuses on information that supports a given solution, belief, or hypothesis, and ignores evidence against it.
130
Midbrain
A portion of the brainstem that manages sensorimotor reflexes to visual and auditory stimuli and gives rise to some cranial nerves.
131
Meritocracy
A society in which advancement up the social ladder is based on intellectual talent and achievement.
132
Rationalization
A defense mechanism by which individuals explain undesirable behaviours in a way that is self-justifying and socially acceptable.
133
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by a lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep; also involves cataplexy and hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations.
134
Archetype
In Jungian psychoanalysis, a thought or image that has an emotional element and is a part of the collective unconscious.
135
Arcuate Fasciculus
A bundle of axons that connects Wernicke's area (language comprehension) with Broca's area (motor function of speech). Damage causes conduction aphasia, characterized by the inability to repeat words with intact spontaneous speech production and comprehension.
136
Arousal
A psychological and physioloigcal state of being awake and reactive to stimuli; nearly synonymous with alertness.
137
Arousal Theory
A theory of motivation that states that there is. aparticualr level of arousal required in order to perform actions optimally; summarized by the Yerkes-Dodson law.
138
Assimilation
## Footnote
In sociology
The process by which the behaviour and culture of a group or an individual begins to merge with that of another group.
139
Assimilation
## Footnote
In psychology
The process by which new information is interpreted in terms of existing schemata.
140
Associative Learning
The process by which a connection is made between two stimuli or a stimulus and a response; examples include classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
141
Attachment
A very deep emotional bond to another person, particularly a parent or caregiver.
142
Attitude
A tendency toward expression of positive of negative feelings or evaluations of a person, place, thing, or situation.
143
Attribute Substitution
A phenomenon observed when individuals must make judgments that are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution or perception.
144
Attribution Theory
A theory that focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behaviour.
145
Autonomy
The ethical tenet that the physician has the responsibility to respect patients' choices about their own healthcare.
146
Availability Heuristic
A shortcut in decision-making that relies on the information that is most readily available, rather than the total body of information on a subject.
147
Avoidance
A form of negative reinforcement in which one eschews the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen.
148
Back Stage
In the dramaturgical approach, the setting where players are free from their role requirements and not in front of the audience; these behaviours may not be deemed appropriate or acceptable and are thus kept invisible fom the audience.
149
Basal Ganglia
A portion of the forebrain that coordinates muscle movement and routes information from the cortex to the brain and spinal cord.
150
Beneficence
The ethical tenet that the physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest.
151
Broca's Area
## Footnote
Damage causes Broca's aphasia.
A brain region located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe (usually in the left hemisphere); largely responsible for the motor function of speech.
## Footnote
Damage causes a loss of the motor function of speech, resulitng in intact understanding within an inability to correctly produce spoken language.
152
Bystander Effect
The observation that, when in group, individuals are less likely to respond to a person in need.
153
Cannon-Band Theory
A theory of emotion that states that a stimulus is first received and is then simultaneously processed physiologically and cognitively, allowing for the conscious emotion to be experienced.
154
Role
155
Schachter-Singer Theory
156
Schema
157
Schizophrenia
158
Selective Attention
159
Self-Disclosure
160
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
161
Self-Handicapping
An impression management strategy where one creates obstacles to avoid self-blame when he or she does not meet expectations.
162
Self-Serving Bias
The idea that individuals will view their own succes as being based on internal factors, while viewing failures as being based on external factors.
163
Semantic Network
Organization of information in the brain by linking concepts with similar characteristics and meaning.
164
Sensation
Transduction of physcial stimuli into neurological signals.
165
Sensitive Period
A time during which environmental input has a maximal impact on the development of a particlaur ability.
166
Sensory Memory
Visual (iconic) and auditory (echoic) stimuli briefly stored in memory; fades very quickly unless attention is paid to the information.
167
Serial Poisition Effect
The tendency to better remember items presented at the beginning or end of a list; related to primacy and recency effects.
168
Signal Detection Theory
A theory of perception in which internal (psychological) and external (environmental) context both play a role in our percetion of stimuli.
169
Sleep Apnea
Sleep disorder in which a person may cease to breathe while sleeping; may be due to obstruction or a central (neurological) cause.
170
Slow-Wave Sleep
Consists of NREM sleep stages 3 and 4.
## Footnote
Aka delta-wave sleep.
171
Social Action
Actions and behaviours that individuals are conscious of and performing beacuse others are around.
172
Social Capital
The investment people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards.
173
Social Construction Model of Emotion
A theory of emotional expression that assumes there are no biologically wired emotions; rather, they are based on experiences and situational context alone.
174
Social Constructionism
A theoretical approach that uncovers the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the formation of their perceived social reality.
175
Social Facilitation
The tendency to perform at a different level based on the fact that others are around.
176
Social Mobility
The movement of individuals in the social heirarchy through changes in income, education, or occupation.
177
Social Movements
Philosophiues that drive large numbers of people to organize to promote or resist social change.
178
Social Perception
Understanding the thoughts and motives of other people present in the social world.
## Footnote
Aka social cognition.
179
Somnambulism
Sleep disorder in which one carries out actions in his or her sleep.
## Footnote
Aka sleepwalking.
180
Source Amnesia
A memory error by which a person remembers the details of an event but confuses the context by which the details were gained; often causes a person to remember events that happened to someone else as having happened to him- or herself.
181
Spacing Effect
The phenomenon of retaining larger amounts of information when the amount of time between sessions of relearning is increased.
182
Stereotypes
Attitudes and impressions that are made based on limited and superficicial information about a person or a group of individuals.
183
Stigma
The extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences in social characteristics from the rest of society.
184
Storage
The retention of encoded information; divided into sensory, short-term, and long-term memory
185
Subcultures
Groups of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong.
186
Sublimation
A defense mechanism by which unacceptable urges are transformed into socially acceptable behaviours.
187
Subliminal Perception
Perception of a stimulus below a threshold (usually the thereshold of conscious perception).
188
Symbolic Interactionism
A theoretical frameowrk that studies the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols.
189
Syntax
The way in which words are organized to create meaning.
190
Temporal Lobe
A portion of the cerebral cortex that controls auditory processing, memory processing, emotional control, and language.
