Master List of Logical Fallacies Flashcards
The A Priori Argument
A corrupt argument from logos, starting with a pre-set belief or conclusion and finding a justification for it. Often used by ideologues or fundamentalists to defend dogmas or doctrines. Example: Explaining away DNA evidence to deny evolution. Opposite: Taboo.
Ableism
A corrupt ethos argument asserting that those less capable or fortunate deserve less and can be victimized. It justifies unethical behavior with phrases like “Life is rough, and you gotta be tough.” Related to argumentum ad baculum.
Actions Have Consequences
The fallacy of mislabeling punishments as “consequences” to imply inevitability. Example: Saying expulsion is a “consequence” of misbehavior rather than a punishment. Opposite: Moral Licensing.
The Ad Hominem Argument
Attacking someone’s character instead of addressing their argument. Example: “He’s so evil you can’t trust what he says.” Variations include guilt by association or token endorsement. Opposite: Star Power fallacy.
The Affective Fallacy
The belief that emotions are self-validating and immune to criticism. Example: “I feel it, so it must be true.” Opposite: Chosen Emotion Fallacy. Related: Angelism.
Alphabet Soup
Overusing jargon or acronyms to confuse or impress. Example: “Our ASD and GT students benefit from K-12 interventions.” Common in pharmaceutical ads. Related: Name Calling.
Alternative Truth
Denying facts or truth entirely, often to manipulate or confuse. Example: Presenting “alternate facts” to control a narrative. Related: Gaslighting and The Big Lie Technique.
The Appeal to Closure
Insisting on a resolution for “closure” even when a point remains unsettled. Example: Justifying the death penalty for closure. Opposite: Paralysis of Analysis.
The Appeal to Heaven
Claiming divine or higher authority to justify actions. Example: “God ordered us to take this land.” Opposite: Job’s Comforter fallacy. Related: Moral Superiority.
The Appeal to Nature
Assuming “natural” things are inherently good. Example: Promoting poison ivy tea because it’s organic. Opposite: The Argument from Natural Law.
The Appeal to Pity
Using sympathy to argue a point regardless of its merits. Example: Supporting underdogs uncritically, as with the Arab Spring movement. Opposite: The Appeal to Rigor.
The Appeal to Tradition
Arguing something is correct because it has “always” been that way. Example: “Women have always been paid less, so it’s tradition.” Opposite: The Appeal to Novelty.
Appeasement
Giving in to demands to avoid conflict, encouraging manipulative behavior. Example: “The customer is always right.” Related: Bribery.
The Argument from Consequences
Dismissing a claim because the outcome would be undesirable. Example: “Climate change can’t be real, or it would ruin the economy.”
The Argument from Ignorance
Assuming something is true or false because it hasn’t been proven otherwise. Example: “We can’t prove evolution, so Genesis must be true.” Related: A Priori Argument.
The Argument from Incredulity
Rejecting something as false because it seems unbelievable. Example: “That’s crazy—it can’t be true!” Related: Hoyle’s Fallacy.
The Argument from Inertia
Continuing a flawed course of action to avoid admitting past mistakes. Example: “We can’t withdraw now; it would mean admitting we were wrong.” Related: Throwing Good Money After Bad.
The Argument from Motives
Rejecting an argument based on the speaker’s motives. Example: “Bin Laden wanted us out of Afghanistan, so we must stay.” Opposite: Justifying actions because of pure motives.
Argumentum ad Baculum
Using threats or force to “prove” a point. Example: “Agree, or I’ll knock you out.” Related: Censorship and intimidation tactics.
Argumentum ad Mysteriam
Using mystery or ritual to persuade instead of logic. Example: “Chanting ancient texts in Latin gives them more authority.” Related: The Long Ago and Far Away fallacy.
Argumentum ex Silentio
The fallacy that silence or lack of evidence on a topic proves a claim. Example: “Science can’t prove God exists, so He doesn’t” or “Science can’t disprove God, so He must exist.” Often misused in legal settings where silence is portrayed as guilt.
Availability Bias
Giving undue importance to information that is immediately available, often ignoring broader or contradictory evidence. Example: “We know this doesn’t work because it failed here,” ignoring successful instances elsewhere. Often paired with hyperbole, such as proclaiming a minor issue as “the worst in history.”
The Bandwagon Fallacy
Arguing something is true because “everyone” or “the majority” believes it. Example: “75% of people think Bob is a liar, so he must be.” This can escalate to coercion: “Get with the program, or get crushed.” Includes digital phenomena like Information Cascades, where people echo popular opinions online without questioning them.
The Big Brain/Little Brain
Blindly following a leader who claims they assume all moral/legal responsibility for followers’ actions. Example: “Don’t think with your brain, trust me instead.” Often tied to authoritarianism and justifications for harmful actions. Opposite: Plausible Deniability.
The Big “But” Fallacy
Declaring a principle and negating it with a “but.” Example: “Everyone deserves a fair trial, but this case is different, so no trial is needed.” Often used for special pleading, exempting cases from usual ethical or legal standards.
The Big Lie Technique
Repeating a bold or false statement until it’s widely accepted. Example: “There are WMDs in Iraq,” despite no evidence. The bigger and more repetitive the lie, the more believable it becomes to some audiences. Related: Propaganda, Alternative Truths.
Blind Loyalty
Believing an argument is correct because it comes from an authority figure or group. Example: “I was just following orders” or “My boss says it’s right, so it must be.” Common in justifications for unethical actions.
Blood is Thicker than Water
Favoring someone’s argument or actions because of personal relationships, ignoring objectivity. Example: “My brother says you’re lying, so you’re fired!” Opposite of Ad Hominem fallacies.
Brainwashing
Coercing or manipulating someone into belief through abuse, pleasure, or addiction. Example: “They’re brainwashing you with propaganda—don’t listen!” Real brainwashing uses fear, love-bombing, or addiction to control behavior. Often exaggerated in media.
Bribery
Persuading someone with gifts or material incentives. Example: “Vote for me and I’ll make sure you get promoted.” Over time, this tactic requires increasing rewards to remain effective.
Calling “Cards”
Dismissing valid objections by labeling them as a rhetorical “card.” Example: “Don’t play the Race Card” or “That’s just the Woman Card.” Prevents meaningful discussion by shutting down debate.
Circular Reasoning
Using the conclusion as evidence for itself. Example: “You need experience to get a job, but you need a job to get experience.” Another form is rephrasing the claim without evidence. Example: “Witches are a threat because witchcraft is dangerous.”
The Complex Question
Demanding a direct answer to a loaded question or proposition. Example: “Did you think you could plagiarize and not face consequences?” or forcing someone to accept/reject a mixed argument with both valid and invalid parts.
Confirmation Bias
Seeking out only evidence that supports one’s pre-existing beliefs. Example: Following media that aligns with one’s views, leading to a distorted perception of consensus. Also explains why people notice evidence that confirms predictions while ignoring contradictions.
Cost Bias
Valuing something more because it was expensive or hard to obtain. Example: “This car is better than a limo because I worked hard to buy it.” Also applies to judging quality based on price, brand, or label.
Default Bias
Favoring the current situation because it exists, rejecting change as too difficult or risky. Example: “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it” or “This is the best possible world.” Opposite: Nihilism, rejecting everything in favor of chaos or constant change.
Defensiveness
Defending a past decision irrationally, even after evidence shows it was wrong. Example: “Sure, he turned out to be corrupt, but at the time, voting for him was the right choice.” Related: Confirmation Bias, where individuals cling to information that supports their decision.
Deliberate Ignorance
Refusing to engage with evidence or arguments that challenge one’s beliefs. Example: “I don’t want to hear it!” Enables denial and perpetuation of harmful ideologies. Related: Trust Your Gut, Confirmation Bias.
Diminished Responsibility
Excusing harmful actions by claiming impaired judgment or panic. Example: “I shouldn’t be punished for the crash—I was drunk and didn’t know what I was doing.” Fails to address the real-world consequences of the behavior.
Disciplinary Blinders
Ignoring evidence or arguments from outside one’s field of expertise. Example: “That’s not how we do things in this field, so it’s irrelevant.” Often seen in academia or professions with rigid boundaries.
Dog-Whistle Politics
A fallacy where a brief phrase or slogan is used to elicit a strong emotional reaction, often divisive, by appealing to unconscious or unspoken prejudices. This results in confusion or fury when challenged.
Draw Your Own Conclusion
The fallacy where an argument presents facts without conclusions, allowing the audience to draw their own conclusions without providing logical support. Often manipulative.
Dunning-Kruger Effect
A cognitive bias where individuals with limited knowledge overestimate their own expertise.
“E” for Effort
A fallacy where something is accepted as true or valuable simply because effort or sacrifice has been invested into it.
Either/Or Reasoning
The fallacy that presents only two extreme options, ignoring the possibility of middle ground or additional alternatives.
Equivocation
The fallacy of using a word with multiple meanings or using a term in an ambiguous way to mislead the audience.
Eschatological Fallacy
The fallacy of arguing that since the world is coming to an end, immediate or drastic actions are justified.
Esoteric Knowledge
The fallacy that certain knowledge or wisdom is reserved for an elite group and is not accessible or understandable to others.
Essentializing
A fallacy that assumes a person or thing is immutable and will always be defined by its current characteristics, without regard to change or context.
Etymological Fallacy
The fallacy of drawing false conclusions based on the historical or linguistic origin of a word, often disregarding its modern meaning.
Excluded Middle
The fallacy that assumes if something is good in small doses, more of it must be better, or if something is bad, none of it is acceptable.
The “F-Bomb”
The fallacy of using profanity or obscenity to emotionally charge an argument, rather than strengthening the argument with reason.
The False Analogy
The fallacy of making a comparison between two things that are not truly comparable in the context of the argument.
Finish the Job
The fallacy that dismisses any questioning or re-evaluation of an action simply because it is seen as part of a job that needs to be completed, often disregarding the quality or morality of the task.
The Free Speech Fallacy
The fallacy of defending a statement by asserting that it is protected by free speech, even if it is harmful, without addressing the validity of the statement itself.
The Fundamental Attribution Error
The fallacy where people attribute others’ actions to their character flaws, while attributing their own similar actions to external circumstances.
Gaslighting
A manipulative fallacy where a person is made to doubt their own reality, memory, or perception of events by distorting or denying facts.
Guilt by Association
A fallacy where someone’s argument or position is dismissed due to their association with a group or person deemed undesirable, rather than addressing the argument itself.
The Half Truth
The fallacy of presenting selective information that supports a particular standpoint while omitting key details that would present a more complete or accurate picture.
Hero-Busting
The fallacy of discrediting historical or current figures by focusing on their imperfections to argue that they are not worthy of admiration, often dismissing their contributions entirely.
Heroes All (Everybody’s a Winner)
The fallacy that everyone is above average or extraordinary, often used to prevent feelings of failure, resulting in a diluted sense of achievement where “everyone is a hero.”
Hoyle’s Fallacy
A fallacy that assumes a highly improbable event could never happen, arguing that if something has a low chance, it must be impossible.
I Wish I Had a Magic Wand
The fallacy of claiming powerlessness in a situation one can actually influence, often used as an excuse to avoid taking action or responsibility.
The Identity Fallacy (Identity Politics)
The fallacy where the validity of arguments depends on the social identity of the speaker, rather than the strength of the argument itself.
Infotainment (Fake News)
A fallacy where factual news is mixed with entertainment or falsehoods, often for ideological or profit-making purposes, misleading audiences into confusion.
The Job’s Comforter Fallacy
The fallacy that misfortunes must be the result of punishment for sins, ignoring random chance or external factors, often used to rationalize personal suffering or others’ misfortunes.
Just Do It (By Any Means Necessary)
The fallacy that overrides moral objections, demanding action at all costs, even if unethical or immoral methods are required, often seen in abusive leadership or orders.
Just Plain Folks
The fallacy that appeals to being “just one of the people,” arguing that simplicity or commonness makes one’s argument more valid, often used to dismiss more educated or complex viewpoints.
The Law of Unintended Consequences
The fallacy that assumes all well-intentioned actions will lead to unforeseen negative consequences, discouraging proactive efforts to improve situations.
Lying with Statistics
The fallacy of misusing statistics to support an unrelated or misleading claim, often by manipulating data or focusing on insignificant figures to obscure the truth.
Magical Thinking
The fallacy that faith or rituals can override the natural laws of the universe to cause desired outcomes, often denying rational explanations for events or problems.
Mala Fides (Arguing in Bad Faith)
The fallacy where one knowingly uses invalid arguments to deceive others or pursue selfish ends, such as lying or misrepresenting information deliberately.
Measurability
The fallacy that only measurable or quantifiable evidence is valid, dismissing subjective or qualitative data as irrelevant or unworthy of consideration.
Mind-reading
The fallacy of speculating about someone’s internal thoughts, motivations, or feelings without evidence, assuming knowledge of others’ inner states.
Moral Licensing
The fallacy that one’s good behavior or recent sacrifices give them a “license” to act immorally or irresponsibly, assuming that past virtuous actions justify future wrongdoing.
Moral Superiority (Self Righteousness)
The fallacy that argues those with “good” moral views have the right to disregard the rights of others, often leading to extreme actions in the name of righteousness.
Mortification
The fallacy that extreme self-punishment or asceticism (pain or discomfort for its own sake) is a virtue, ignoring the potential harm or negative consequences of such practices.
Moving the Goalposts
The fallacy of changing the criteria for success or evidence once the original criteria have been met, making victory impossible no matter what is done.
MYOB (Mind Your Own Business)
The fallacy of dismissing any criticism or intervention by declaring it to be someone else’s concern, often used to avoid accountability for harmful actions.
Name-Calling
A form of the Ad Hominem fallacy where the argument is dismissed based on insults or labels, rather than addressing the merits of the argument itself.
The Narrative Fallacy
Persuasion through telling emotional or personal stories, often at the expense of logical arguments or principles, which are more persuasive to less critical audiences. Example: Charles Dickens’ “A Christmas Carol.”
The NIMBY Fallacy
The belief that a problem doesn’t exist as long as it is far away or doesn’t affect the person directly. Often leads to ignoring problems by sending them out of sight. Example: “Build a wall!”
No Discussion Fallacy
Rejecting reasoned dialogue in favor of forced compliance or the threat of violence. It falsely portrays “hostiles” as unreasonable. Example: “We don’t talk to terrorists.”
Non-recognition Fallacy
Denying the existence of an issue in order to avoid dealing with it, typically because acknowledging it might “reward” wrongdoers. Example: Not recognizing the government of China for decades.
The Non Sequitur
Making conclusions or presenting evidence that has no logical connection to the argument. Example: “The reason I flunked your course is because of purple five-dollar bills!”
Nothing New Under the Sun
Cynically dismissing new ideas or phenomena as merely repetitions of the past. Example: “The current refugee crisis is just like past Muslim invasions.”
Olfactory Rhetoric
Using the imagined or real smell of a person or group to dehumanize or dismiss them. Example: “I can smell a Jew a block away.”
Oops! Fallacy
The tactic of suddenly “remembering” a damaging fact at a crucial moment in an argument or debate, often to undermine the opponent. Example: “Oops, I forgot to mention you were convicted of this crime before!”
Othering
Marginalizing or dehumanizing people or groups by defining them as different and inferior. Example: “They don’t think about life and death the same way we do.”
Overexplanation
Providing excessive detail or explanation that ultimately makes understanding more difficult. Example: “Let me explain every little detail, even though you already get the point.”
Overgeneralization
Making broad claims based on limited examples, or applying a general rule without regard for exceptions. Example: “All lives matter” in response to “Black Lives Matter.”
The Paralysis of Analysis
The fallacy of delaying decisions or actions because of the belief that all data is never fully available. Example: “We can’t make a decision until all the facts are in.”
The Passive Voice Fallacy
Using passive voice to conceal responsibility for actions, which can obscure who is at fault or who made a decision. Example: “It has been decided that you are to be let go.”
Paternalism
Dismissing others’ arguments as immature or childish, taking a condescending attitude. Example: “Your argument is so infantile, try approaching it like an adult.”
Personalization
Taking responsibility for events or outcomes that you have no control over, often in a deluded way. Example: “It’s my rotten luck that the blizzard happened during our winter festival.”
The Plain Truth Fallacy
Simplifying complex issues to the point of misrepresenting the truth. Example: “Just tell me the simple truth without all that complicated stuff.”
Plausible Deniability
Concealing one’s involvement in questionable or evil acts, allowing the person in power to avoid responsibility. Example: “Arrange a fatal accident but make sure I know nothing about it.”
Playing on Emotion
Using emotional appeals instead of rational arguments to persuade. Example: “If you don’t agree, think of all those innocent children suffering because of this!”
Political Correctness
The idea that changing language can change the nature of things. Example: “Let’s call animals ‘companions’ instead of ‘pets’ to fight cruelty.”
The Pollyanna Principle
Assuming that everyone shares the same positive values and desires. Example: “The only thing Nazis wanted was peace and prosperity, just like us.”
The Positive Thinking Fallacy
Believing that positive thinking can influence external reality before taking any action, often part of a closed-minded, cult-like ideology. Example: Believing that repeating affirmations will automatically improve outcomes without effort.
The Post Hoc Argument
Attributing causality to a coincidence, assuming that because one event follows another, the first caused the second. Example: “Disco caused AIDS because both emerged at the same time.”
The Pout (Silent Treatment)
Rejecting dialogue or cooperation before it is concluded, often using passive-aggressive tactics like boycotts, sit-ins, or strikes. Example: A leader refusing to negotiate with another party after an impasse.
The Procrustean Fallacy
Forcing diverse human beings to fit rigid, standardized models, often in education, work, or governance. Example: Standardized tests applied to all students, ignoring diverse learning needs.
Prosopology
The fallacy of listing names or people to emphasize a cause, often creating an emotional connection but with little logical relevance. Example: “Let’s list the names of every victim of war to make you feel the gravity.”
The Red Herring
Introducing an irrelevant issue to distract from the main argument. Example: “Forget about my financial troubles; let’s focus on terrorism!”
Reductio ad Hitlerum
Dismissing an argument by associating it with Hitler, which can become a fallacy if the comparison is not relevant. Example: “That’s what Hitler would have wanted, so it must be wrong.”
Reductionism
Oversimplifying complex issues with simplistic slogans or answers. Example: “If the glove doesn’t fit, you must acquit” during the O.J. Simpson trial.
Reifying
Treating abstract concepts as though they are material things. Example: “The War on Terror is part of a grand cosmic battle between Good and Evil.”
The Romantic Rebel
Claiming that one’s viewpoint is valid solely because it challenges mainstream or established beliefs. Example: “The scientific establishment has suppressed the truth about Area 51.”
The “Save the Children” Fallacy
Using the image of suffering children to manipulate emotions and justify actions in a crisis, often ignoring the broader context. Example: “We must intervene in Syria because of the suffering children.”
Scapegoating
Blaming others for one’s own misfortune or a larger issue. Example: “The Jews are responsible for all of our country’s problems.”
Scare Tactics
Exploiting fear to push through an argument or decision. Example: “If you don’t support this bill, our country will fall apart!”
Scoring
Using sports or competitive language to trivialize serious issues. Example: “Let’s take our game to Kim Jong-un’s turf and win this political standoff.”
The Scripted Message
Repeating pre-arranged phrases or talking points without true engagement. Example: Politicians sticking to their scripted speeches rather than addressing specific issues.
Sending the Wrong Message
Rejecting an argument because it might undermine a carefully crafted illusion, even when the argument is truthful. Example: “We can’t admit that this policy failed—it would send the wrong message to our allies.”
Shifting the Burden of Proof
Demanding that others disprove a claim instead of providing evidence to support one’s own argument. Example: “You can’t prove that space aliens aren’t real, so they must be!”
The Shopping Hungry Fallacy
Making important decisions based on emotions like fear, hunger, or anger, often in the heat of the moment. Example: Supporting a rushed policy after a crisis because emotions are running high.
The Silent Majority Fallacy
Arguing that an unseen majority supports a position, even in the face of contradictory polling or evidence. Example: “The silent majority supports my stance on immigration, even if polls say otherwise.”
The Simpleton’s Fallacy
The belief that ignorance is as valuable as knowledge, or the idea that simple answers are always correct. Example: “If you don’t understand the issue, you’re just as good as someone who does.”
The Slippery Slope
The fallacy that one event will inevitably lead to another, often exaggerated to a catastrophic consequence.
The Snow Job
Overwhelming an audience with irrelevant information to distract or confuse them, making it hard to evaluate the argument.
The Soldiers’ Honor Fallacy
The mistaken belief that soldiers deserve honor solely because they followed orders or wore a uniform, regardless of cause.
The Standard Version Fallacy
Declaring a particular translation or version of an ancient or sacred text as “correct,” without considering other interpretations.
Star Power
Using the authority or fame of an expert or celebrity to validate an argument, regardless of their expertise in the subject.
The Straw Man
Misrepresenting an opponent’s argument to make it easier to attack or dismiss.
The Taboo
Declaring certain arguments or issues as off-limits or too sacred to discuss.
They’re All Crooks
The fallacy of dismissing political engagement or media based on the belief that all involved are corrupt.
The Third Person Effect
Believing mass media influences others more than it influences oneself, leading to ignoring the message entirely.
The Thousand Flowers Fallacy
Encouraging open discussion to expose dissenters and punish them later, rather than genuinely exploring opposing views.
Throwing Good Money After Bad
Continuing to invest in a losing cause based on the fact that previous investments will be wasted otherwise.
TINA (There Is No Alternative)
Arguing that no other options are possible or available, closing off further discussion or alternatives.
Tone Policing
Judging the validity of an argument based on its emotional tone rather than the logic or evidence presented.
Transfer
Associating a respected or famous person with a product or idea to lend it credibility, even if unrelated.
Trust Your Gut
Relying on intuition or “gut feelings” rather than evidence or logic to make decisions.
Tu Quoque (You Do it Too!)
Defending an action or standpoint by pointing out that the opponent is guilty of the same or worse.
Two-sides Fallacy
Presenting two opposing viewpoints as equally valid when one side has a stronger argument or broader consensus.
Two Truths
Holding that two contradictory truths exist in different contexts, creating cognitive dissonance without addressing the contradiction.
Venting
Excusing offensive or controversial statements by claiming they are just “venting” or “letting off steam.”
Venue
Discrediting an argument by claiming it’s presented in the wrong place, time, or medium, regardless of its relevance.
We Have to Do Something
The fallacy of acting immediately, often impulsively, in response to fear, anger, or demand for change, even if the action is ineffective, overreactive, or harmful.
Where There’s Smoke, There’s Fire
The fallacy of drawing a hasty conclusion or taking action based on insufficient evidence, often fueled by prejudice or ignorance.
The Wisdom of the Crowd
The belief that groups, markets, or crowds are infallible, ignoring historical instances where collective decision-making led to catastrophic or irrational outcomes.
The Worst-Case Fallacy
Reasoning based on an improbable or imaginary worst-case scenario, emphasizing fear and caution over logic or evidence.
The Worst Negates the Bad
Justifying or minimizing a bad situation by comparing it to a worse scenario, often dismissing legitimate grievances or criticisms.
Zero Tolerance
Declaring an emergency and advocating for extreme, often unjust, measures to eliminate a minor or nonexistent issue, frequently driven by political or emotional motivations.
